Habitat

Primarily warm coastal marine and estuarine environments year-round. Generally rare inland, but regular postbreeding visitor to inland waters in sw. U.S. (Am. Ornithol. Union 1998) and central Florida (McNair 2000); resident at Salton Sea, CA (Sturm 1998), and Lake Okeechobee, FL (Smith and Goguen 1993). Usually breeds on small, predator-free coastal islands within 30–50 km of consistent, adequate food supply (Briggs et al. 1981, Anderson et al. 1982, U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. 1983). Along Atlantic and Gulf coasts of U.S., breeds mainly on barrier, natural estuarine, or dredge-spoil islands, except in Florida, where mangrove islets predominantly used (Wilkinson et al. 1994). Breeds on dry, rocky offshore islands in n. Gulf of California and along Pacific coast of California and Baja California, mangrove forests in mainland Mexico (U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. 1983). Coastal and insular mangrove, tropical thorn, and humid forests mainly used in the Tropics (Montgomery and Martínez 1984, Collazo 1985, Guzman and Schreiber 1987).

Usually forages in shallow waters within 20 km of nesting islands during breeding season, up to 75 km from nearest land during nonbreeding season, rarely beyond (Briggs et al. 1981, 1983). Offshore foraging range limited by need for undisturbed, dry nocturnal roosting site. Unable to remain on water >1 h without becoming waterlogged; returns to shore to roost each night and loaf during the day after foraging (Schreiber and Schreiber 1982). Sandbars, pilings, jetties, breakwaters, mangrove islets, and offshore rocks and islands important roosting and loafing sites (Schreiber and Schreiber 1982, U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. 1983, Briggs et al. 1983).

Peruvian Pelican inhabits Peruvian Coastal (Humboldt) Current System. Breeds on arid islands with sparse vegetation; forages in cool, upwelled coastal waters (Murphy 1936, Duffy 1980b).