Appearance

Undergoes complex and incompletely understood molt pattern prior to acquiring Definitive plumage at 3–5 yr of age, at which time an annual molt cycle is undertaken. Molts continuously during first 2–3 yr, making it difficult to define plumages. Sexes similar in all plumages, but females may attain Definitive plumage sooner than males (females: 34–36 mo; males 36–40 mo; Schreiber et al. 1989). Descriptions follow Palmer 1962 and Schreiber et al. 1989 and apply to U.S. populations of P. o. carolinensis and P. o. californicus . For age determination, a hatch date of 1 Apr is assumed.

Hatchlings

See Breeding: young birds, above.

Juvenal Plumage

Acquired at about 10 wk. Head, neck, and dorsum grayish brown; belly white, grading to grayish brown on sides. Most upper wing-coverts and contour feathers have light-tan tips. Under wing-coverts grayish brown tipped with white, producing a white stripe in wing-lining.

Basic I Plumage

Prebasic I molt occurs soon after fledging; few details. Basic I plumage resembles Juvenal plumage, except the grayish-brown head- and neck-feathers replaced by darker brown ones by 5–8 mo of age. Molt progresses from posterior to anterior, spreading laterally on the head and up the neck from the dorsum. Also light-shafted feathers begin to appear on the back, gray scapulars appear, and white belly becomes more clearly demarcated from the grayish-brown sides. Partial Prealternate I molt of head and neck and possible Presupplemental molt of head occur by end of first year; no details on plumage changes.

Basic II Plumage

Prebasic II molt complete; occurs through summer and fall of second year. Primaries and secondaries begin molting at 12–14 mo of age (Apr–Jun), although some individuals may not molt any remiges during their first year. Primaries replaced in order from P1 to P10; mainly Jul–Aug. Secondaries replaced more rapidly sometime between Apr and Oct; molt begins with S27–32 then skips around. Rec-trices undergo almost continuous molt during first 10–12 mo after fledging; molt generally bilaterally symmetrical, with replacement occurring in clumps. Head and neck molt at 12–15 mo of age. Molt of upper wing-coverts complete by 15–17 mo; during molt, gaps appear in greater and median upper secondary-coverts and white of underlying feather bases exposed. Back-feathers completely replaced by 20–24 mo. No details on timing of molt of other contour feathers. Basic II plumage similar to Basic I plumage, but more gray on dorsum. Head and neck brown; may have some white feathers on sides of head and neck. Feathers of back, rump, and upper tail-coverts white-shafted with brown edges. Scapulars and upper wing-coverts grayish brown medially with darker brown edges. Brown feathers from side of body encroach onto white belly. Flanks brownish, with some blackish-brown and white streaks. Remiges and rectrices grayish brown. Under wing-coverts streaked brownish and white.

Alternate II Plumage

Partial Prealternate II molt of head and neck occurs at about 22 mo of age. Crown, sides of head, and stripe along gular pouch white, mottled with fuscous. Remainder of head and neck dark brown. Presupplemental molt of head may follow, but no details.

Basic III Plumage

Complete Prebasic III molt occurs summer–fall of third year. Unlike Prebasic II molt, primaries replaced in 2 simultaneous waves, P1 to P4 or P5 and P5 or P6 to P10; mainly Aug–Jan. Pattern of secondary and rectrix replacement same as Prebasic II molt. Secondaries molt mainly Jun–Jan. Rectrices molt throughout year, but mainly Jun–Dec. No information on timing of molt of contour feathers. Basic III plumage intermediate between Basic II and Definitive Basic plumages. Head and neck white, with dark mottling; dorsum and breast brown-gray; belly speckled.

Alternate III Plumage

Partial Prealternate III molt of head and neck occurs between 31 and 34 mo of age. Little information on Alternate III plumage. Captive-raised birds had pale yellow to yellow heads and tan to brown necks when 31–38 mo old (Schreiber et al. 1989). No details on subsequent Presupplemental molt of head.

Definitive Basic Plumage

Complete Definitive Prebasic molt occurs in fall of fourth (sometimes third) and subsequent years. Requires 3–4 mo to complete, except for rectrices, which are replaced in clumps over prolonged period (May–Feb). Remiges replaced in same pattern as Prebasic III molt. Primaries molt mainly Aug–Nov; secondaries, Sep–Jan. Molt of remiges and rectrices generally bilaterally symmetrical. Breast- and belly-feathers replaced Jul–Aug; head-, neck-, and dorsal body-feathers replaced Sep–Nov. Definitive Basic plumage worn through winter.

Head mostly pale to dark yellow, neck white, upper surface of body silver-gray, and belly blackish brown. Forehead- and crown-feathers pale yellow when new, becoming deep yellow-orange by Jan–Feb from head rubbing against uropygial gland. Feathers on back of head and nape longer than surrounding feathers, forming an occipital crest (60–90 mm) and a shorter mane on nape. Crest may be white, yellow, or dark brown; number of brown feathers apparently decreases with age. Nape and rest of neck white. Feathers of back, rump, upper tail-coverts, marginal upper wing-coverts, and lesser upper secondary-coverts silver distally along rachis and dark brown-black along margins, producing a striped appearance. Scapulars and greater and median upper secondary-coverts gray-silver to silvery brown. Greater primary-coverts and primaries blackish brown to black. Secondaries and rectrices grayish brown to ashy gray, frosted pale gray on outer webs. V- or diamond-shaped patch of elongate feathers on breast at base of foreneck yellow. Breast and belly blackish brown, usually with faint white shaft lines. Sides of breast, flanks, and under wing-coverts striped with silver and blackish brown. Under tail-coverts blackish brown with whitish shaft stripes; the longest feathers mostly white.

Definitive Alternate Plumage

Acquired by partial Definitive Prealternate molt of head and neck. Neck molts just prior to onset of breeding, mainly Jan–Apr.

Narrow white stripe extending from head down side of gular pouch and tapering to a point on side of foreneck. Length of stripe below base of pouch highly variable: significantly longer in males (mean 46 mm, n = 30) than females (mean 33 mm, n = 43); lacking in some females, always present in males (Schreiber et al. 1989). Rest of neck and crest usually dark brown; may be pale tan, cinnamon brown, or nearly black in some individuals. In some birds, isolated white feathers form a yoke at base of hindneck during the 2–3 wk required for neck-feathers to be replaced. At the onset of incubation (Feb–May), white feathers replace yellow feathers on head; considered the Presupplemental molt by Palmer (1962), but part of Definitive Prealternate molt by Schreiber et al. (1989).

Supplemental Plumage

Acquired by partial Presupplemental molt (possibly part of prolonged Definitive Prealternate molt) in Jun–Aug. Some white head-feathers replaced by brown feathers, creating a salt-and-pepper appearance; more prevalent in younger than older adults. By end of breeding period (Jul–Sep), feather coat extensively worn and faded; birds appear “scruffy.” Crest reddish brown, neck faded to medium brown, back and wing-coverts dull brown, breast-patch pale yellow or white, upper breast dull brown and flecked.

Colors vary geographically and with age and season; most intense in adults during courtship, then fade with onset of incubation. Descriptions follow Schreiber et al. 1989, unless otherwise noted.

Bill And Gape

Bill greenish gray in nestlings >24 d old (Schreiber 1976a). Gray-brown in first-year birds, with some yellow appearing at tip and on sides at 12–14 mo of age. Between 16 and 19 mo, becomes gray-green-yellow with some orange. Orange becomes more distinct at 29–37 mo. Gular pouch dull gray. In Definitive Basic plumage, proximal end of upper mandible pinkish orange, distal end buff yellow over pinkish orange, and nail at tip buff yellow. Lower mandible pinkish orange, except for gray or mottled middle section. Proximal end of gular pouch reddish orange in P. o. californicus and green-gray in P. o. carolinensis; distal end dark gray-green in both subspecies. As breeding season approaches, colors intensify; bill becomes brightest 4–6 wk before pouch. In Definitive Alternate plumage, upper mandible bluish pearl gray and pinkish on proximal end, buff yellow-orange-red over bluish pearl gray on distal end, and bright buff yellow on nail. Lower mandible pale yellow on proximal third, bluish pearl gray elsewhere. Proximally, gular pouch bright poppy red in P. o. californicus and usually blackish metallic green in P. o. carolinensis; distally, blue-black-green in both. In Texas 5–10% of breeding P. o. carolinensis have red pouches (D. Blankinship pers. comm.); about 1% in Florida have red, orange, or yellow pouches (Schreiber et al. 1989). Colors fade with onset of incubation. In Supplemental plumage, upper mandible gray proximally, buff yellow and orange over pearl gray distally, and buff yellow on nail. Distal two-thirds of lower mandible gray. Yellow patch on proximal third of lower mandible at maximum intensity when young being fed; may serve as target for begging nestlings. Proximal end of gular pouch faded yellow-gray in P. o. californicus, gray-green in P. o. carolinensis; distal end dark green in both.

Iris

Brown in juveniles and adults in Supplemental and Definitive Basic plumages. Lightens to straw white or light sky blue as courtship approaches; re-mains light in Definitive Alternate plumage until onset of incubation, then darkens to brown.

Bare Skin On Head And Neck

Eye-ring black in juveniles under 16–19 mo of age, then pale blue-black. In adults, gray-pink in Definitive Basic plumage, changing to pink in Definitive Alternate plumage. Color fades with onset of incubation, becoming gray in Supplemental plumage.

Legs And Feet

Cream-white in nestlings >24 d old (Schreiber 1976a), dark gray in juveniles and adults in Definitive Basic plumage; black in Definitive Alternate and Supplemental plumages.