Appearance

Descriptions based on Ridgway 1919; Bent 1929; Witherby et al. 1940; Parmelee et al. 1967; Stout et al. 1967; Fjeldså 1977; Johnson 1977, 1979; Ferns 1978b; Harrison 1978; Branson et al. 1979; Cramp and Simmons 1983; Summers et al. 1989; Ens et al. 1990; and Zwarts et al. 1990, supplemented by examination of birds in the field and museum specimens. Molts and plumages of species complex, with considerable gaps in information, particularly primary-molt pattern of yearling birds and marked differences between continental populations (adults and immatures) in timing, degree of synchrony, and form (e.g., see Summers et al. 1989).

Hatchlings

Chicks completely downy and precocial at hatching with complex dark dorsal-plumage pattern. Upperparts vary from light buff-gray to cinnamon-buff with dark gray or black bands and mottled areas, sometimes pale buff down tips; distinct midcrown line from upper forehead to nape bounded by single mottled lateral line on each side, forming a 3-lined U-shaped pattern, followed by 2 broken dark- to pale-gray streaks along central back; wings, rump, and thighs also spotted or striped dark gray to black, sometimes with pale buff; black line from base of upper mandible to eye, with forehead, cheeks, throat, and remaining underparts off-white to pale gray except for mottled dark-gray dusky band along sides of chest. (For details, see Fjeldså 1977: Fig. 10 and plate 21.)

Juvenal Plumage

No detailed information on timing or sequence of Prejuvenal molt. Complete before fall migration, generally similar to Definitive Basic (nonbreeding) plumage. Overall, Juvenal plumage appearance medium- to dark-brown upperparts with scapulars, edged white or buff, shorter than adults, revealing more coverts, and duller than adult breeding or nonbreeding plumage. Crown dark brown or blackish with distinct buff border and black speckles on cheek, otherwise head similar to adult nonbreeding; nape brownish with feathers whitish gray at base; mantle, scapulars, and tertials dark brown with narrow light buff margins at tip of each feather (distinct from adult nonbreeding), rump and upper tail-coverts black with buff tips, as are tips of tail (particularly rectrix 1) and dark-brown upper wing-coverts (also distinct). Underparts similar to adult nonbreeding, except breast-band narrower and browner, sometimes with buff edges. Sexes practically identical.

Basic I Plumage

Prebasic I molt partial to incomplete, includes head, neck, mantle, scapulars, some back- and rump- or tail-feathers (mainly R1), and underparts; some Juvenal tertials, some scapulars, and some median-coverts, some primaries, and most secondaries retained; molt occurs mainly late Sep–Nov, sometimes earlier (Cramp and Simmons 1983).

Basic I plumage similar to Definitive Basic plumage but averages darker and more uniform, with band from neck around breast browner (less blackish) than in Definitive Basic plumage. Sexes similar.

Alternate I Plumage

Prealternate I molt partial; occurs mainly Apr–early Jun, sometimes later (Cramp and Simmons 1983), similar to Definitive Prealternate molt but less complete. Includes head and neck, parts of breast, mantle, scapulars, and tertials, sometimes some upper wing-coverts, though many Juvenal wing-coverts (especially innermost median) retained and show worn buff edges. Subsequent molt sequence complex, as some birds migrate north toward breeding grounds in Alternate I and molt like adult, whereas others remain on or close to winter quarters, resulting in diverse range of plumage types and molts (for details, see Johnson 1977, 1979; Cramp and Simmons 1983; Summers et al. 1989; Ens et al. 1990). Some birds that do migrate north toward breeding grounds resemble adult Definitive Alternate plumage (breeding), but head more heavily streaked dusky brown or black, and mantle, scapulars, and wing-coverts make up mix of new rufous and old and new blackish-brown feathers. Sexes slightly distinguishable, males on average brighter than females (Bent 1929).

Definitive Basic Plumage

Definitive Prebasic molt complete; occurs mostly from about Aug–early Oct and late Nov, but sometimes as late as Feb, plumage retained to Mar or Apr (Stout et al. 1967, Cramp and Simmons 1983). Head, neck, and some body feathers replaced as early as late Jun, normally later toward end of breeding prior to migration (late Jul and Aug) and either at stopover sites or soon after arrival on wintering grounds. Primary molt rapid during first 4 wk, slowing thereafter and mostly complete by early Oct–late Nov, roughly 70–75 d after start; head and body molt largely complete (in Basic) by mid-Sep, secondaries replaced mid-Sep–early Oct and rectrices early to mid-Sep; timing highly variable between populations and wintering areas, with n. South America wintering morinella birds likely 6 wk later than timing given above for interpres (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Summers et al. 1989). No primary molt on breeding grounds (Engelmoer and Roselaar 1998).

Forehead and sides of head pale sepia-gray with some off-white and buff mottling, and often with indistinct black streaking from lower forehead to eye and cheek. Narrow white eye-ring. Mottled black streak from base of lower mandible to sides of throat (widest below eye), and from side of nape to side of throat. Crown, nape, and upper mantle down to sides of breast dark sepia gray and partly spotted dull black. Lower mantle, scapulars, tertials, and all median and longer, lesser upper wing-coverts dull black to dark gray with paler gray to buff margins. Chin and upper throat white; lower throat and breast black, but not as dark as in Alternate plumage, with some paler feather bases. Back to upper tail-coverts, tail, remiges, shorter lesser, and all greater upper wing-coverts, and remaining underparts as in Definitive Alternate plumage.

Sexes similar, though black facial streaks usually discernible in male (not in female), and most females with uniformly dark-grayish head and broad blackish band from side of nape to throat and upper breast.

Definitive Alternate Plumage

Definitive Prealternate molt partial; occurs from late Feb to Jun, mostly from mid-Mar to mid-Apr, complete late Apr–mid-May, sometimes earlier at tropical winter locations (mid-Mar–early Apr; Bent 1929, Cramp and Simmons 1983). Includes most body feathers, particularly head, neck, and breast, but not all feathers of back and rump, and no scapulars, upper tail-coverts, or wing-coverts except for some median and lesser wing-coverts. Molt similar between sexes, though female normally retains lesser wing-coverts and more median wing-coverts than male.

Forehead, wide streak over eye, streak down over ear to hindneck, and round patch on lores white. Narrow streaks over lores to front of eye, from base of lower mandible across cheeks, and wider bands from eye down to cheek, and from sides of nape to throat, black. Crown usually evenly streaked black and white with some buff when fresh, but occasionally mostly black. Hindneck and upper mantle white with some gray and buff dots, with white extending down into streaks at side of breast. Lower mantle mostly black, with central feathers tipped or margined bright rufous. Most scapulars and tertials black, but shorter outer scapulars mainly bright rufous, and longer scapulars and tertials tipped and margined bright rufous. Back white. Rump black and upper tail-coverts white. Chin white, sometimes spotted black or all black. Throat, breast, and sides of breast black. Remaining underparts white. Central rectrices (R1) black with white base and narrow white tip, and sometimes partly suffused cinnamon. White of base and tip becoming more extensive toward R6, and R6 mostly white with black subterminal bar or dot. Primaries dark gray-brown, nearly black on outer feathers, and with bases of outer webs of inner 6 largely white. Outer secondaries white with broad dark tip; gradually more white toward inner secondaries, and inner 3 feathers white or with small dark subterminal marks. Greater upper wing-coverts and primary-coverts black or dark gray, and broadly tipped white. Lesser upper wing-coverts dark gray-brown with paler margins along wing bend, bordered by white streak or triangle across inner arm. Remaining longer, lesser and all median upper wing-coverts include old gray-brown feathers mixed with new bright rufous feathers with black dots and marks. Under wing-coverts and axillaries white.

Sexes similar, though distinguishable, male with pronounced black-and-white separate streaks along crown, whitish nape, and brighter upperparts, and no flecking on breast-patch; female crown more mottled with extensive streaking and brownish nape, duller upperparts overall (for details, see Nettleship 1967, 1973; Ferns 1978a; Whitfield 1986).

Bill And Gape

In adult, black and short, laterally compressed wedge-shaped bill with slightly upturned tip, sometimes with gray to brown toward base, particularly outside breeding season; juvenile similar to nonbreeding adult; dark bluish gray to yellowish gray with black tip in nestling. Gape and corner of mouth dark gray to black.

Iris

Dark brown in adults, juveniles, and nestlings.

Legs And Feet

Relatively short tarsus and foot, both stout, with unwebbed anterior toes and well-developed small hind toe, all with black nails, usually with dark brown to grayish markings at joints; in adults, usually orange to orangy red (sometimes yellowish orange), in juveniles, yellowish brown or pale orangy yellow, becoming orangy red after midwinter, and nestlings buff brown to yellowish red or dull orange.