Distribution

Normally occurs strictly in coastal areas, including sandy and pebble beaches, sandbars, and mudflats, and along coastal lagoons (Fig. 1).

Breeding Range

Breeds locally along Atlantic Coast from Virginia (Accomac and Northampton Cos.; Virginia Breeding Bird Atlas [BBA] unpubl.) south to s. Florida, including Florida Keys (except Dry Tortugas); from s. Florida west along Gulf Coast to n. Veracruz, Mexico; and from Yucatán, Mexico, south along Gulf Coast to Belize Cays (Stevenson and Anderson 1994, Howell and Webb 1995, Turcotte and Watts 1999, Texas BBA 1987–1992 unpubl.). Breeding uncertain farther south along Caribbean coast of Central America: no breeding records from south of Belize (Am. Ornithol. Union 1998), including Caribbean coasts of Costa Rica (Stiles and Skutch 1989) and Panama (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). In South America, breeds locally along Atlantic coast from Colombia south to ne. Brazil, including islands of Trinidad, Aruba, Bonaire, Margarita, and Curaçao off coast of Venezuela (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Voous 1983, Hayman et al. 1986, Hilty and Brown 1986, Tostain et al. 1992, Sick 1993, Am. Ornithol. Union 1998).

In West Indies, breeds throughout Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and Virgin Is.; on St. Martin, St.-Barthélemy, St. Kitts (St. Christopher), Antigua, and Barbuda in n. Lesser Antilles; and in the Grenadines in s. Lesser Antilles (Raffaele et al. 1998).

Along Pacific Coast, breeds locally along west coast of Baja California Sur, and from Gulf of California (throughout) south to Nayarit, Mexico (Howell and Webb 1995, Russell and Monson 1998). Farther south along Pacific coast, breeds at Bahía de Jiquílisco in El Salvador (Thurber et al. 1987); around Golfo de Nicoya, and locally elsewhere along Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Stiles and Skutch 1989); in w. Panama Province (Playa Coronado), Coclé Province (Aguadulce), and Pearl Is. of Panama (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Am. Ornithol. Union 1998); and in South America from Colombia south to nw. Peru (Hilty and Brown 1986, Am. Ornithol. Union 1998). One inland breeding record from Salton Sea in se. California (Am. Ornithol. Union 1983).

Winter Range

Winters mainly in ne. Florida (Duval Co.; Christmas Bird Count [CBC] data), and from central Florida (Brevard and Pasco Cos.; Robertson and Woolfenden 1992) and w. Louisiana and Texas (CBC data) south through remainder of breeding range to n. South America (Hayman et al. 1986, Am. Ornithol. Union 1998). During winter occurs in coastal areas throughout Central America (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989, Howell and Webb 1995, Thurber et al. 1987). Some resident populations in West Indies (e.g., Cuba and Puerto Rico) decline during nonbreeding season (Raffaelle et al. 1998), perhaps indicating that some breeders there are migratory. Migratory individuals from the north (C. w. wilsonia; see Systematics: geographic variation; subspecies, below) have also been observed wintering as far south as Atlantic coast of South America (including offshore islands) south to Bahia, Brazil (Sick 1993), and recently to coastal São Paulo, Brazil (R. Ridgely and L. Bevier pers. comm.); C. w. beldingi has been observed wintering along Pacific coast as far south as Peru (Hayman et al. 1986). Winters rarely along Atlantic Coast north to S. Carolina (McNair and Post 1993) and along middle Gulf Coast of U.S. (Turcotte and Watts 1999).

Other Records

Casual along Pacific Coast north to central California (Monterey, Ventura, and San Diego Cos.); at inland locations in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Minnesota, and the Lake Erie region (s. Ontario, Ohio, and Pennsylvania); and north along Atlantic Coast to Nova Scotia (Am. Ornithol. Union 1998). Also casual in s. Lesser Antilles south of Antigua (except the Grenadines) and Bermuda, where formerly more frequent during 1950s and 1960s (Amos 1991). Also occurs casually at inland locations within close proximity of coastal breeding sites in Florida (Stevenson and Anderson 1994) and elsewhere. One such inland record is from Sonora, Mexico (Bamuri), following 2 d of strong southerly winds (Russell and Monson 1998).

Not recorded.

Breeding range is contracting at northern limits. Latest American Ornithologists’ Union checklist (1998) listed s. New Jersey as northern limit of breeding range. However, last known nesting in New Jersey was 1940–1955 (Sibley 1997). Last known nest in Maryland was on Assateague I. in 1985; species last seen in that state in 1989 (Hoffman 1996). Northernmost limit of breeding range at present is Virginia, where species is currently on Endangered list (Virginia Dept. of Game and Inland Fisheries 1991). Frequent fall vagrant on Bermuda during 1950s and 1960s, but only 1 subsequent record (Amos 1991).

No information.