Distribution

Breeding Range

Figure 1 . In the U.S., breeds along coasts of Texas, Louisiana, and s. Florida; some interior nesting occurs in s. Florida and Louisiana. No records of breeding in Alabama or Mississippi to date (G. Jackson pers. comm., T. Schiefer pers. comm.).

In Florida, breeds Nov–Jun in several locations along coasts, including ne. and nw. Florida Bay and scattered locations in the central bay encompassing Dade and Monroe Cos. (Bjork and Powell 1994, J. Ogden pers. comm.). Also breeds in Tampa Bay area usually at Alafia Bank (Hillsborough Co.), Washburn Sanctuary (Manatee Co.), and Tarpon Key (Pinellas Co.; R. Paul pers. comm.), and along Atlantic coast at Kennedy Space Center, Brevard Co. (R. Smith and D. Breininger pers. comm.). No other breeding locations presently known for Florida coasts. Small numbers breed inland, however, at Everglades Water Conservation Area 3A, now at Alley North site, Broward Co. (P. Frederick pers. comm.), and at Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary, Collier Co., so far in 1999 only (R. Paul and E. Carlson pers. comm.). Comprehensive aerial surveys of the state confirms limited coastal distribution (Runde 1991, Runde et al. 1991).

In Louisiana, breeds Apr–Aug in Cameron, Jefferson Davis, Evangeline (inland), Vermilion, St. Mary, St. Martin, Terrebonne, and Lafourche Parishes. A few pairs also bred at Black Bay, Plaquemines Parish in 1996, the only known U.S. breeding location east of Mississippi River outside of Florida (Louisiana Natural Heritage Program 1986–1996; see Historical changes, below).

In Texas, breeds Apr–Aug primarily on upper and central sections of coast: around Galveston Bay, Matagorda Bay, San Antonio Bay, and Corpus Christi Bay; A few colonies occur farther south to Rio Grande (Texas Colonial Waterbird Census 1973–1996, Texas Colonial Waterbird Society 1982).

In Mexico and n. Central America, fairly common to uncommon, local, year-round resident along coasts (Howell and Webb 1995). On Pacific coast, local breeder from s. Sonora, Mexico, south to Honduras (Howell and Webb 1995, Palacios and Mellink 1995). No definite breeding records from Guatemala, El Salvador, w. Honduras, and w. Nicaragua (Monroe 1968, Land 1970, Thurber et al. 1987). On Atlantic coast, local breeder from s. Tamaulipas, Mexico south to n. Nicaragua (Howell and Webb 1995, Frederick et al. 1997). In Costa Rica, locally common to abundant during dry season (Tempisque basin, Golf of Nicoya) with smaller numbers elsewhere along Pacific coast, and major (perhaps only) colony sites at Pajaros I. on Tempisque River and San Pablo I.; disperses to nw. Atlantic lowlands (Rio Frio District) but otherwise rare along Atlantic coast (Slud 1964, Luthin 1984, Stiles and Skutch 1989, see Nonbreeding range, below). In Panama, uncommon along Pacific coast; reported to have bred at Cocoli area until 1930s, otherwise breeding undocumented; wanders to Atlantic coast (Wetmore 1981, Ridgely and Gwynne 1989).

In West Indies, uncommon and local year-round resident breeding on Cuba (formerly common; see Hancock et al. 1992), Hispaniola, Great Inagua and Andros (rare, with 1 breeding record from North Andros I.), Bahama Is.; rare or vagrant elsewhere in West Indies (Bond 1993, Baltz 1997, Raffaele et al. 1998, White 1998).

In South America, range poorly documented; mostly east of Andes south to n. Argentina; more frequent nesting inland on fresh water than in Middle or North America. Along Atlantic coast of Colombia and Venezuela, common only in Colombia east of Cartagena (perhaps breeding); wanders inland to llanos and Cauca and Magdalena Valleys to 1,000 m (Hilty and Brown 1986). In Venezuela, mostly inland; breeds in llanos but present locally along Orinoco River to Delta Amacuro (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978). Small numbers regularly visit Caroni Swamp (Apr–Sep) in Trinidad, but otherwise accidental to casual on Leeward Netherlands Antilles, Margarita I., and Tobago (Blake 1977, Voous 1983, ffrench 1991). Along Atlantic coast, no breeding records for Guyana but present along coast and inland (Chubb 1916, Snyder 1966). Common in Suriname; breeding documented in 1967 near Gandu, west of Suriname River mouth (Haverschmidt and Mees 1994). Rare and local in French Guiana; mostly southeast, where it probably breeds (Tostain et al. 1992). Inland east of Andes, seldom reported in main Amazon Basin, but breeds in e. Peru, e. Bolivia, Paraguay, and s. Brazil (Blake 1977, Hayes 1995). Abundant breeder in wet savannas of s. Brazil and se. Bolivia (Pantanal of Mato Grosso; Yamashita and Valle 1990, Dubs 1992). Common breeder in s. Rio Grande do Sul (Belton 1984). Breeds in ne. Argentina south to Cordoba and Buenos Aires, east to Uruguay; absent from most inland provinces bordering Chile (Blake 1977, Burger 1978, Narosky and Yzurieta 1989). Scarce or accidental south to s. Patagonia (Blake 1977, Narosky and Yzurieta 1989). Only known to breed west of Andes on Pacific coast of n. Peru (Tumbes and Piura; Meyer de Schauensee 1970, Blake 1977) and assumed to breed in Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador, where large numbers of spoonbills, including juveniles, are present near mangrove breeding colonies of other wading birds (R. Ridgely pers. comm.). Otherwise, rare on Pacific coast of Colombia; casual in Chile (Hilty and Brown 1986, Araya and Chester 1993). Nonbreeding records from Pacific slope and High Andes of Peru (Stott 1959); few records from Santiago, Valparaíso, and Colchagua Provinces in Chile, indicating Andean crossing as well (Johnson 1965, Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990).

Nonbreeding Range

Summer. Figure 1 . In the U.S., individuals disperse annually after breeding season (usually summer through fall, see Migration), to portions of Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas but irregularly along Gulf Coast in Alabama and Mississippi (also see Audubon Field Notes 1994–1998). In Florida, occurs throughout Florida Peninsula (including interior), but rare and sporadic in Florida Panhandle (Robertson and Woolfenden 1992, Stevenson and Anderson 1994). On Gulf Coast reaches St. Marks Lighthouse (Wakulla Co.), but found mostly from Tampa Bay area southward. On Atlantic Coast, occurs north to extreme se. Georgia (R. Davis pers. comm., Robertson et al. 1983). In Alabama and Mississippi, irregular, with small numbers (mostly immatures) from coast and far inland, but frequency increasing (G. Jackson pers. comm., T. Schiefer pers. comm.), since last reviewed by Robertson et al. (1983). In Alabama, about 14 records for state through fall 1998, ≤4 birds/record, most have occurred since 1987 (G. Jackson pers. comm.). In Mississippi, about 25 records for state through 1998; mostly 1–2 birds/ record, with yearly occurrences at St. Catherine Creek National Wildlife Refuge, Adams Co., from 1995 to 1998 (T. Schiefer pers. comm.). Appeared regularly in small numbers during 1990s in Arkansas and w. Tennessee (G. Jackson pers. comm., Audubon Field Notes Vol. 51). In Louisiana, occurs from southwest coast east to Lafourche Parish; also slightly inland to Calcasieu Parish and east to Lafayette Parish. Irregular but increasingly regular, with small numbers farther inland (Evangeline parish, east and south to New Orleans vicinity, St. Martin Parish); wanders farther inland to central and n. Louisiana (S. Cardiff pers. comm.). In Texas, common along coast; wanders irregularly inland to Maverick, Medina, Bexar, Travis and Brazos Cos., north to Dallas–Fort Worth area and Hagerman National Wildlife Refuge, west to Abilene vicinity, and east to Nacogdoches and Harrison Cos. Accidental in w. Texas: scattered records from Amarillo vicinity; Lubbock; Midland Co.; Concho Valley-San Angelo vicinity; Reagan, Pecos, and Reeves Cos.; and Big Bend (see also Oberholser 1974, Rappole and Blacklock 1994).

Individuals (usually immatures) also move irregularly after breeding season (summer–fall) into other portions of U.S. (Allen 1942; see also Am. Birds Vol. 41, 47, and Audubon Field Notes Vol. 49–52, except as noted below). Most records that are east of the Mississippi River have occurred along s. Atlantic coast to N. Carolina, and exceptionally to s. New York. In 1972, extensive inland dispersal of mostly immatures occurred to nw. Georgia and w.-central Tennessee (Robertson et al. 1983). Other inland records have occurred north to Pennsylvania (Allen 1942), Ohio (Peterjohn 1989), Kentucky, Indiana (Keller et al. 1986), Illinois (Allen 1942), Wisconsin (Bent 1926), Iowa, Missouri (Robbins and Easterla 1992), Nebraska, Kansas (Thompson and Ely 1989), Oklahoma (Baumgartner and Baumgartner 1992), Colorado (Andrews and Righter 1992), Utah (Behle et al. 1985), Nevada (Alcorn 1988), Arizona (Monson and Phillips 1981), and California. In California, has occurred irruptively with major invasions in 1959, 1973, and 1977, mostly at Salton Sea, with fewer records from lower Colorado River valley, and few records along coast from San Diego Co. north to Monterey Co.; a few birds have remained during winter (Small 1994, see below).

Little information on post-breeding dispersal patterns in other geographic areas, especially in South America. In n. Mexico, wanders inland (May–Aug) to Durango and Coahuila, including lakes of Mexican plateau, south to Central Volcanic Belt; rarely to ne. Baja, and only 1 record on Pacific coast (Howell and Webb 1995, Amador and Ramirez 1996). In Costa Rica, disperses inland after winter dry season to nw. Atlantic lowlands (Rio Frio district), possibly Lake Nicaragua; sporadic and rare elsewhere, including San José vicinity and rest of Atlantic coast (Slud 1964, Stiles and Skutch 1989). Populations breeding in West Indies may disperse locally, or to Florida or Mexico via the Yucatán Peninsula. See Migration below.

Winter. U.S. populations restricted to s. Florida, sw. Louisiana, and coastal Texas (see also Christmas Bird Counts, 1994–1997). Not present in Mississippi or Ala-bama, and only 1 winter record from Georgia (G. Jack-son pers. comm., T. Schiefer pers. comm.; see also Audubon Field Notes Vol. 50), but 3 winter records for California, including the northern most record for state (Montgomery Co.; Small 1994, see also Audubon Field Notes Vol. 49). In s. Florida, from Tampa Bay on Gulf Coast and Titusville on Atlantic coast, south to Florida Bay and Keys; also interior Everglades occasionally (Robertson and Woolfenden 1992, Stevenson and Anderson 1994, S. Bass pers. comm.). Otherwise rare to uncommon and irregular elsewhere. In Louisiana, appears to withdraw to coast of southwestern parishes (Cameron, Vermilion), but this impression may be due to lack of sampling of central coast. Few records east to New Orleans vicinity, south to s. Lafourche and s. Plaquemines Parishes (S. Cardiff pers. comm.). In Texas, winters locally in some years along entire coast (Oberholser 1974, Rappole and Blacklock 1994). Reported at some inland locations (Colorado Co.).

In Mexico and n. Central America, rare to fairly common on Pacific coast (s. Sonora, south to Honduras) and Atlantic coast (s. Tamaulipas, south to Honduras; Howell and Webb 1995). Seasonal distribution patterns of South American populations poorly known.

Species recorded once in Oxfordshire, England, but may be an escaped bird (Easterbrook 1985).

See Demography and populations: population status, below. Until the 1850s, breeding range of this species encompassed much of s. Florida (coastal, inland), Gulf Coast of Texas, and between those 2 locations along Gulf Coast, but extent unknown, since no early reports of breeding from Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi (summarized by Allen 1942). By 1890s, essentially disappeared from most of original breeding range; numbers greatly reduced by feather hunters, increased human settlement and disturbance at nesting colonies, and hunting of this bird for food (Allen 1942).

Florida

For nesting records see Bent 1926, Howell 1932, Allen 1942 . Bred from Tampa Bay on Gulf Coast, and from Brevard Co. on Atlantic Coast and interior, south to Florida Bay. Other inland freshwater breeding records: Lake Okeechobee (1874); Oklaloacoochee Slough and Corkscrew (1913–1915; Allen 1942); between Tamiami Trail and Loop Road, Monroe Co. (date unknown; Sprunt 1939). By 1920s, restricted to tip of southern peninsula and Florida Bay, and nests were few. Mainland was mostly abandoned by late 1930s; only 1–2 colonies in e.-central Florida Bay remained by 1941 (Sprunt 1939, Allen 1942, Powell et al. 1989). Restricted to Florida Bay until late 1960s, expanding from east-central to southeastern and northeastern regions (mid-1960s), then northwest (mid-1970s; Ogden 1978a, Powell et al. 1989, Bjork and Powell 1994). Never completely reoccupied the mainland (summarized by Bjork and Powell 1996). Expanded to tip of southern peninsula in late 1960s, but nesting sporadic, with mostly small numbers up to 1992; has not persisted to present (S. Bass pers. comm.). First breeding in Tampa Bay area since 1912 occurred in 1975 at Alafia Bank, Hillsborough Co. (Dunstan 1976). Breeding has continued annually through the present, spreading in 1992 to Washburn Sanctuary (Manatee Co.) and Tarpon Key (Pinellas Co.; R. Paul pers. comm.). First breeding on Atlantic coast since 1874 occurred in 1987 at Kennedy Space Center, Bre-vard Co., and has continued annually to the present (R. Smith and D. Breininger 1988, pers. comm.). First inland freshwater nesting since 1915 (see above) observed at Water Conservation Areas of Everglades in 1992 (3A and Loxahatchee); has continued annually only at 3A (Bancroft and Sawicki 1992, Frederick 1995, Frederick and Towles 1995). First nesting at Corkscrew area since 1915 occurred in 1999 (see The Americas, above).

Texas

Earliest breeding record from John James Audubon (Galveston I., Apr 1837). This species probably no longer bred in Texas by 1895; extirpated early because colonies in coastal lagoons were more accessible than the impenetrable mangrove swamps of Florida (Allen 1942). Breeding reestablished in 1923 at San Antonio Bay and Guadalupe River in Victoria Co. (Bent 1926, Allen 1942, Chapman 1982). By 1941, 5 breeding sites on upper and central coast (Allen 1942). Breeding for 1942–1968 poorly known (Chapman 1982). Small cluster of inland colonies near Brazos River (Brazoria and Fort Bend Cos.), and near Guadalupe River (Victoria Co.), have not persisted into mid-1990s (Texas Colonial Waterbird Census 1973–1996, Texas Colonial Waterbird Society 1982).

Louisiana

Earliest description from 1880s just before decimation: abundant breeder in southwestern parishes (Cameron, Vermilion, Calcasieu; McIlhenny 1943). No other early reports (Allen 1942). Breeding probably restricted to southwestern parishes until 1990, when small numbers bred east of Vermilion to Terrebonne Parish (Oberholser 1938, Portnoy 1977, Martin and Lester 1991). Estimates in 1996 indicate shift in core abundance and number of breeding locations to north and east; large concentrations now in Jefferson Davis, St. Mary, and Terrebonne parishes (see The Americas, above). These observations suggest reoccupation of historical range.

Identified from late-Pleistocene deposits in Florida, California, and Peru (Howard 1930, Woolfenden 1957, and Campbell 1979, all in Emslie 1995). Earliest and only fossil occurrence of a spoonbill in North America before this period is a new species, Ajaia chione, from early Irvingtonian in Florida. Known from foot and leg bones; shares some features with ajaja; possibly a direct ancestor (Emslie 1995).