Distribution

Breeding Range

Figure 1 . Distribution always dependent on suitable local habitats. In general, species occurs from w. and s. North America south through Central America, West Indies, to s. South America; also Hawaiian Archipelago. The following discussion only covers subspecies H. m. mexicanus, which occurs south to n. South America, and H. m. knudseni (Hawaiian Archipelago; see Outside the Americas, below).

Pacific Coast. Breeds in coastal California from Marin Co. south to San Diego Co. (Small 1994; detailed s. California breeding localities in Garrett and Dunn 1981) and west of the Sierra Nevadas in inland central California from Shasta Co. south through Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys to Kern Co. (Small 1994). In inland s. California resident at Salton Sea, also locally along the Colorado River and at Phoenix, AZ (Monson and Phillips 1981, Wilbur 1987, Small 1994). Breeds in n. Baja California Norte and Pacific coast of Mexico from Sinaloa to Chiapas (Howell and Webb 1995). Breeds along Pacific coast of Central America in Guatemala (also uncommon breeder in interior lowlands; Land 1970), and locally in coastal El Salvador (Howell and Webb 1995). Also breeds in the Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica (Stiles and Skutch 1989), but rarely breeds elsewhere in Costa Rica or Panamá (Stiles and Skutch 1989).

Interior. In Great Basin, breeds in s. Oregon east of the Cascades (Klamath, Lake, Harney, and Malheur Cos., rare further north; Gilligan et al. 1994) and breeds east of the Sierra Nevada in California in Modoc and Lassen Cos., but not in most of ne. Nevada (Alcorn 1988). Northern limit of Great Basin range is s. Idaho (Stephens and Sturts 1991), especially Snake River Valley (Paulson 1993); eastern limit is n. Utah (Walters and Sorensen 1983), but recently extended into sw. Wyoming (Oakleaf et al. 1992), southern limit is Yerington, NV (Alcorn 1988). Additional breeding colonies now occur along the Mississippi River from s. Louisiana north to w. Tennessee, se. Missouri, and sw. Illinois (M. Robbins pers. comm.).

Extremely sparse breeder in southwestern range from s.-central Colorado (Rio Grande and Alamosa Cos.; Andrews and Righter 1992, Kingery 1998) and ne. New Mexico (from Los Pinos south to Las Vegas [NM], Roswell, and Carlsbad; Bailey 1928); rarely in Union and San Miguel Cos. (Johnsgard 1979) and most regularly in ne. Pecos Valley, middle Rio Grande Valley, and the Carlsbad area (Hubbard 1978); and throughout the western half of the Texas panhandle and at scattered locations elsewhere in n. and w. Texas (Texas Breeding Bird Atlas unpubl.).

Also breeds locally in e.-central Washington (Rohwer et al. 1979), scattered small colonies as far north as Potholes Reservoir (Paulson 1993; see Historical changes, below), w.-central Montana (Bergeron et al. 1992), n.-central (Jackson, Larmer, Weld Cos.) and se. Colorado (Bent, Crowly, Kiowa, and Otero Cos.; Andrews and Righter 1992, Kingery 1998), and central Kansas (Cheyenne Bottoms and Quivera National Wildlife Refuge; Johnsgard 1979, Thompson and Ely 1989).

Atlantic Coast. Breeds in a few scattered areas along the Atlantic Coast from Delaware Bay (along coast of Delaware from Bombay Hook I., DE, southward; Paxton et al. 1987, Hess et al. 1998); also recent breeding record along Delaware River in Philadelphia, PA (Santner 1992), and Chesapeake Bay (Deal I., MD; Armistead 1987); also breeds regularly at Chincoteague Refuge, VA (Scott and Cutler 1969, Kain 1987). In N. and S. Carolina and Georgia breeds at a few scattered locations along Atlantic Coast (Dinsmore 1977, Post and Gauthreaux 1989). In Florida, recorded from Okaloosa, Wakulla, Hamilton, and Duval Cos. southward; common in Everglades and abundant at Lake Okeechobee (Stevenson and Anderson 1994). Accidental breeder from McKay Bay (Tampa) as far west as Pensacola and Mobile, AL (Stevenson and Anderson 1994).

West Indies. Widespread breeder throughout the West Indies from the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, Cayman Is., and Virgin Is., south to s. Lesser Antilles, but rare south of Guadeloupe and in portions of the n. Bahamas (Brudenell-Bruce 1975, Raffaele 1989, Downer and Sutton 1990, Garrido and Kirkconnell 1993, Raffaelle et al. 1998).

Western Gulf of Mexico and Interior Mexico. Breeds along Gulf Coast from sw. Louisiana north to Calcasieu, Jefferson Davis, Acadia, and Lafayette Parishes (S. Cardiff pers. comm.) with scattered breeding occasionally throughout the state (e.g., breeding records in Caddo, Bossier, and Natchitoches Parishes; P. Dickson pers. comm.), west through Texas (north to San Antonio, rarely to Austin; Oberholser 1974). In Mexico breeds along the Gulf Coast from Taumalipas and e. Nuevo León south to Tabasco and in narrow coastal band around Yucatán Peninsula (Howell and Webb 1995), and in the interior from central Chihuahua, south to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Howell and Webb 1995).

South America. Resident n. South America with main concentrations east of Andes in llanos of Colombia and Venezuela south to n. Peru, e. Ecuador, and Amazonian ne. Brazil; also on Galápagos Is. (Am. Ornithol. Union 1998). In Colombia along Caribbean coast, Cauca and Magdalena Valleys, and Sabana de Bogotá (Hilty and Brown 1986). Venezuela north of the Orinoco River, including Caribbean islands, also south of Orinoco in nw. Bolívar along the Río Paragua and in n. Amazonas (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Am. Ornithol. Union 1998). Trinidad and Tobago (uncommon; ffrench 1991). In Guyana (coastally and along Arbary and Berbice Rivers; Snyder 1966), Suriname, and French Guyana, to ne. Brazil (Amapá and the lower Amazon to central Minas Gerias north of the Rio São Francisco; Ruschi 1979). Peruvian coast as far south as Lima (Blake 1977), and south in Andes to central Peru, though southern limit of nominate mexicanus uncertain. See Systematics: subspecies for range of H. m. melanurus, which occurs south of nominate mexicanus .

Other Records. Extralimital breeding records north of the Pacific Coast range at Humboldt Bay, CA (Small 1994), in desert southwest near Las Vegas, NV (Alcorn 1988), and in Arizona (rarely near Chandler, Painted Rock Reservoir, and Tucson; more commonly at Phoenix; Monson and Phillips 1981). Other interior breeding records from sw. Illinois (McKee and Finck 1995), Missouri (Stoddard Co.; Robbins and Easterla 1992) and Tennessee (Memphis; Coffey 1985). Along the Gulf Coast, sporadic breeding records throughout inland Louisiana (S. Cardiff pers. comm.).

Tendency to range widely and to be transported by storms makes extralimital sightings of summer nonbreeders common, and these can herald future breeding records. Following a history of extralimital summer sightings in Alberta, two pairs bred near Edmonton, Alberta, in 1977 (Dekker et al. 1979). Confirmed nesting records occur erratically in Alberta south of Edmonton (Beaverhill Lake, New Dayton, Calgary, Grassland Natural Region, the Parkland; Semenchuk 1992). Since 1977, 3 confirmed breeding records from Saskatchewan (Blackstrap, Bradwell, and Unity; Smith 1996, C. L. Gratto-Trevor pers. comm.).

Other summer sightings: Vancouver, British Columbia, in May (Roberson 1980); Alberta (Pakowski Lake, Lethbridge, Airdrie, Stirling Lake, St. Albert, Irricana, Longdon, and Brooks; Semenchuk 1992); Timmins, Ontario, in Sep following a hurricane (Godfrey 1966); S. Dakota (S. Dakota Ornithol. Union 1991); Minnesota in Jul (Stevens Co., Roseau Co.; Buer and Buer 1989, Winkelman 1989); Iowa (Kent and Dinsmore 1996); West Virginia (Argabrite 1994); s. Newfoundland in Jun and s. New Brunswick (Amos 1991); Bermuda (Amos 1991).

Winter Range

Pacific Coast and Interior. In central California between Colusa and Sacramento National Wildlife Refuge, Glenn Co., and in the San Joaquin Valley from Sacramento south to Kern Co. (Small 1994). Near San Francisco Bay and along the Pacific Coast from Ventura Co. to San Diego Co. (Small 1994); usually in Orange and San Diego Cos. and at Pt. Mugu and rare elsewhere in s. California (Garrett and Dunn 1981). Resident at Salton Sea in inland s. California, with occasional wintering along the Lower Colorado River Valley (Rosenberg et al. 1991), and near Phoenix, AZ (Bystrak 1974, Monson and Phillips 1981). Occasionally seen in winter near Loving, NM (Hubbard 1978).

Florida and Gulf Coast. In Florida winters along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and interior from Coot Bay, St. Petersburg, Tampa, and Polk Co. south (Stevenson and Anderson 1994). Winters in sw. coastal Louisiana (as far east as Lafayette Parrish as far north as Calcasieu; S. Cardiff pers. comm.). Rare on the upper Texas Gulf Coast, but winters from the central Gulf Coast to Rio Grande delta (Oberholser 1974).

West Indies. Resident throughout breeding range in the West Indies but sometimes becomes scarce outside breeding season (Brudenell-Bruce 1975, Raffaele 1989, Downer and Sutton 1990, Garrido and Kirkconnell 1993, Murphy 1994, Sordahl 1996a, Raffaele et al. 1998).

Mexico, Central and South America. Winters throughout entire breeding range in Mexico, Central America, and South America, except probably does not winter in Trinidad or Tobago (ffrench 1991). During winter, range also expands to include all of Baja California, the entire Pacific coast from n. Sonora south to central Panama, and the Caribbean coast from Guatemala to central Panama, but more numerous along Pacific coast (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989, Howell and Webb 1995).

Hawaiian subspecies occurs on all major islands of Hawaiian Archipelago from Ni‘ihau I. eastward to Hawai‘i I. except Läna‘i and Kaho‘olawe Is. (Pratt 1987, Am. Ornithol. Union 1998). Has occurred at least once on Läna‘i (Engilis and Pratt 1993), and occurrence on Hawai‘i thought due to relatively recent recolonization after several decades of absence (Munro 1944, Paton et al. 1985, Banko 1988).

Extralimital presence of 3 Black-necked Stilts in Netherlands and Belgium 1991–1992 probably due to escapes from captivity; one female bred with Black-winged Stilt (Meininger 1993).

Breeding Range

Pacific Coast. Before 1950, present in “limited numbers” around San Francisco Bay in summer and fall, with a few stragglers in winter (Grinnell and Wythe 1927). Possibly responding to interior habitat conditions, breeding in salt pond habitat in South San Francisco Bay increased to >600 pairs in 1981 (Shuford 1993).

Interior. Breeding range in w. U.S. has expanded northward over last 20 yr. Species has been sighted as an occasional visitor in British Columbia and Manitoba; successful nests in Alberta (Chapman et al. 1985) and Saskatchewan (Salisbury and Salisbury 1989). Of 14 Saskatchewan sight records, 10 occurred since 1977 (Smith 1996). Breeding first suspected in Washington state in 1960, confirmed in 1973, and at least 5 nest-ings at 3 localities documented in 1977 (Rohwer et al. 1979). Extralimital breeding in 1977 attributed to drought in w. U.S., but has continued to be reported (e.g., in Washington in 1979; Rohwer et al. 1979; Canada in 1987 and 1989; Wedgewood and Taylor 1988, Salisburg and Salisburg 1989). Black-necked Stilts now established as local breeders in Washington (Pothole Res. and rarely to Reardan; Paulson 1993). Unusual numbers seen in w. Oregon (Willamette Valley) in 1981, 1984 (130 individuals), 1985 (70 individuals) and 1987 (Paulson 1993). Coastal sightings in Washington and Oregon have increased in parallel with increases in birds in the interior (Paulson 1993). An 1894 breeding record from Port Qu’Apelle, Saskatchewan, has been questioned (Godfrey 1966) but might be valid since the record was also from a period of widespread drought (Smith 1996). Since the late 1980s the breeding range has expanded north along the Mississippi River from s. Louisiana to w. Tennessee, se. Missouri, and sw. Illinois (M. robbins pers. comm.).

Atlantic Coast. In 1800s, bred along North American Atlantic Coast as far north as New Jersey (Ridgway 1919), with sightings of stragglers as far north as Rockland, ME (Knight 1908) and Grand Manan, New Brunswick (Forbush 1912). Range contracted due to spring and summer shooting, and by 1840 species rarely seen north of Georgia (Forbush 1912). Present breeding usually only as far north as Delaware. A few stilts seen in New Jersey each summer, and breeding records there would not be surprising (Leck 1984). Reintroduction attempt in New Jersey in 1952 was unsuccessful (Leck 1984). Regular breeding in coastal Delaware (Hess et al. 1998) and multiple records of breeding stilts in Maryland, and Pennsylvania since 1962 (records in Holgerson 1971, Santner 1992, Davidson 1996) suggest that stilts might return to breed in their pre-extirpation range in e. U.S.

Gulf Coast and Florida. Recent occasional breeding records in nw. Louisiana probably related to construction of water control structures for navigation (P. Dickson pers. comm.). Florida breeding range has also expanded recently. In 1932, only as far north as Seminole and Orange Cos., Kissimmee, and Punta Gorda. Recent records have extended from Tampa to Pensacola; also Mobile Bay, AL (Stevenson and Anderson 1994).

Winter Range

Mexico and Western Gulf. Wintering range has expanded along the Gulf Coast over the last 20–30 yr. Once confined to Cameron Parish in extreme sw. Louisiana, now commonly winters throughout the broader rice-growing regions of Louisiana (S. Cardiff pers. comm.; see The Americas, above).

Tertiary

Membership of several fossil genera in Recurvirostridae (Brodkorb 1967) has been questioned (Olson 1985). An extinct species of stilt, H. olsoni, from late Miocene of Arizona was characterized by longer legs and larger, stouter skeletal elements (Bickart 1990) relative to recent stilts.

Pleistocene

Worldwide, three species of stilts known from Pleistocene fossils (Brodkorb 1967). In North America, fossil stilts from Pleistocene conspecific with recent Black-necked Stilt. Fossils found at Fossil Lake, OR (Howard 1946), and Smith Creek Cave, NV (Howard 1952). In contrast to American Avocets, Black-necked Stilts have not been found in the Pleistocene avifaunas of the McKittrick or La Brea tar pits, and it is possible that the two species were not sympatric in California at that time (Miller and DeMay 1942).

Holocene

Prehistoric sites in the same areas as McKittrick (Kern Co., CA) and Rancho La Brea (Los Angeles Co., CA) yield remains of both Black-necked Stilt and American Avocet (Miller and DeMay 1942). One bone (<500 yr old) from each species identified from Indian kitchen middens at Buena Vista Lake, CA (DeMay 1942). A prehistoric record of H. m. knudseni is known from O‘ahu I. (Table 5 in Olson and James 1991).