Sounds

Development

Some 3-wk-old juveniles give rough renditions of adult’s characteristic tu call (see below; TLT). No evidence of vocal learning.

Vocal Array

Varied but needs study. No information on geographic variation in vocaliza-tions.

Calls. All calls (except precopulatory ones) given by both sexes. Most characteristic call is a single or double tu note (Fig. 3A), also described phonetically as tew or whew (Nichols 1920, Hayman et al. 1986, Paulson 1993). Emphasized frequency of call between 2–3 kHz; each note lasts about 0.1 s, the 2-note sequence for about 0.25 s (Fig. 3A). Tu notes appear to function as flight calls, to advertise location, and to “welcome” birds as they join a flock (Nichols 1920).

Alarm calls include a single, sharp kip note (Street 1923) and a series of evenly spaced, loud tu or cuw notes (Fig. 3B) where bird bobs its head and tail on each note (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961). Agitated breeding birds repeat cuw notes in rapid series of 4–5 with brief pauses between each series (Rowan 1929). Cuw calls function to warn mates and chicks and to direct attention of predators away from chicks. When predator (particularly falcon) approaches, cuw notes drawn out into very loud keer (TLT). If chicks are in imminent danger, parents may give plaintive screaming calls as they attempt to lead predators away (TLT). Wounded or captured birds utter loud, harsh cheerp (Nichols 1920). When distressed, chicks give thin, variable peeping calls at frequencies of 3–5 kHz (Fig. 3C).

Flocked birds deliver murmuring yu yu yu and mixture of soft, modulated cup, kip, and keup notes (Nichols 1920) when they alight at foraging areas or gather at roosts; intensity of calls increases as conspecifics join roost. Single birds give high, clear queep or peep-quip or eep if left behind by flock and a soft “chuckle” when taking wing (Nichols 1920).

Breeding adults use a bubbling mixture of soft cup, kip, and keup notes when communicating with mates or chicks in the absence of any outside disturbances (Street 1923, TLT). Precopulatory calls include twittering “copulation chatter” by males and loud, even tu notes by females (TLT).

Songs. Song consists of repeated pill-e-wee pill-e-wee pill-e-wee etc. (Rowan 1929, see sonogram in Miller 1984: Fig. 12D). Song can last for several minutes when accompanying undulating Flight Display and birds often continue song upon landing (See Sexual behavior: pair bond, below). Both sexes sing; however, only male documented performing Flight Display (but see Rowan 1929 and T. Randall in Bannerman 1961). Shorter versions of song (presumably the “yodle” of Nichols 1920) often interspersed with call notes (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961) and given in a variety of contexts. Breeding birds use short songs to maintain contact with their mates, to alert mates when conspecifics or predators approach nests or broods, and in response to songs from other breeding yellowlegs (TLT). Nonbreeding birds often give short songs when conspecifics pass by or arrive at foraging locations; function of short songs may be locatory in these situations (Nichols 1920, TLT). When a pair exchanges at nest they sometimes engage in a “whisper song duet”, no other vocalizations heard at nests (L. Oring in litt.).

Phenology

Short songs common throughout the breeding season, infrequent during migration. Song with Flight Display most frequent in first 2 wk after arrival on breeding areas. Alarm calls very common during breeding, a few reports from fall staging grounds.

Daily Pattern Of Vocalizing

No quantitative data.

Places Of Vocalizing

Vocalizes from elevated perches, ground, and air. Breeding birds often call and sing from a few main perches in nesting area. Adults with broods call from any perch that allows them clear view of intruder.

Repertoire And Delivery Of Songs

Needs study.

Social Context And Presumed Functions Of Vocalizations

See above.

Loud buzzing noise heard when birds alight at high speed after zigzag flight to ground (Rowan 1929); presumably made by air passing over flight feathers.