Appearance

Descriptions based on Ridgway 1919, Cramp and Simmons 1983, and Marchant et al. 1986, unless otherwise stated. Capitalized color names follow Smithe (1975–1981), and corresponding number codes are given with first mention of each name. Color scores are from birds taken in or observed in Alaska and Nevada.

Hatchlings

Completely downy. Generally pale Neutral Gray (86) or Drab (27) on upperparts, sometimes tinged with Salmon (6); white below. Head marked Blackish Neutral Gray (82) with small spot on forehead, loral streak, and stripes behind ear-coverts. Crown Sepia (119), with Blackish Neutral Gray lateral stripes on either side. These stripes meet at back of crown and become single stripe extending down center of nape. Hindneck Sepia, with fine whitish streaks. Upperparts marked with Sepia: Broad central stripe runs down lower back to rump, and narrower lateral stripes with broader stripes below lie to either side. Thighs are deep Sepia to Vandyke Brown (121) on outer sides.

Juvenal Plumage

Prejuvenal molt complete. Crown Hair Brown (119A), with white flecking; chin white; remainder of head and back of neck a mixture of Dark Drab (119B) and Hair Brown, with fine white streaks. Mantle and scapulars predominantly Hair Brown and Dark Brownish Olive (129), with Dark Drab toward centers of feathers and clearly defined whitish notches around edges, giving spotted appearance to back; tips of back-feathers fringed white, with dark streak down middle. Lower rump and uppertail-coverts white, with Hair Brown bars especially on longest tail-coverts; unlike in adults, some of these feathers have terminal Hair Brown rim on white tip. Underparts predominantly white; foreneck and chest finely streaked with Hair Brown and Dark Drab, usually forming neat band; flanks and undertail-coverts lightly barred Drab. Rectrices narrowly barred Dark Drab, becoming Hair Brown toward edges, and Light Drab (119C), becoming white toward edges; bars less distinct on central feathers, especially along shaft. Primaries Sepia, inner webs becoming paler with variable off-white speckling toward inner edge and small white marks on outer edges; extent of white markings increases on inner primaries. Secondaries paler, Hair Brown, with more extensive white notches than primaries have (see Burton and McNeil 1976). Primary-coverts Sepia, with white tips. Other wing-coverts and tertials similar to scapulars, though white notches larger and interspersed with darker Vandyke Brown spots; these feathers all have a narrow terminal dark line at tip that wears away rapidly (Burton and McNeil 1976). Underwing-coverts and axillaries white, with Hair Brown to Drab bars.

Basic I Plumage

Prebasic I molt incomplete; remiges, primary, greater-coverts, and some lesser-coverts and scapulars, usually lower back and rump, and often some rectrices are retained. Molt usually (though not always; Dwight 1900) begins on breeding grounds in late Aug–Sep with head, underparts, and some mantle-feathers and scapulars. Continues throughout winter; head, neck, most of underparts, about half of mantle-feathers and scapulars and occasionally tertials, median upperwing-coverts, and rectrices molted by Oct–Nov.

Feathers replaced in Prebasic I molt are similar in appearance to their counterparts in Definitive Basic plumage (see below); thus Basic I birds overall are very similar in appearance to Definitive Basic (adult) birds. Birds in their first nonbreeding season can be distinguished by (1) absence of remigial molt, causing more worn feathers (until midwinter), with large white notches of Juvenal plumage; (2) the fact that tips of rump-feathers and uppertail-coverts have Hair Brown terminal rims (sometimes until Feb); (3) the fact that retained Juvenal outer rectrices are more worn and narrower than new central feathers, and marked with close, even bars; and (4) the contrast of Juvenal wing-coverts to new coverts.

Alternate I Plumage

Prealternate I molt incomplete; occurs Mar–May. Occasionally like adult plumage (see description of Definitive Prealternate molt, below), but usually limited to some feathers on head, chest, and mantle, some scapulars, and inner median-coverts. New feathers similar to Definitive Alternate counterparts (see below). Birds that undergo extensive Prealternate I molt usually have less extensive black on upperparts and narrower dark markings below than do birds in Definitive Alternate plumage.

Definitive Basic Plumage

Definitive Prebasic molt complete; starts immediately after breeding, with some feathers on head, mantle, or chest, or scapulars. Most of head, body, and tertials molted in late Aug–late Oct, after arrival at wintering sites; birds arriving in n. South America have arrested molt after flight across Caribbean Sea (McNeil 1970). Primaries molted from P1 outward, often beginning before leaving breeding grounds, suspended during migration, and completed on wintering grounds between late Nov and early Feb (Morrison 1984). Remaining feathers replaced mostly Nov–Dec. Individuals summering on nonbreeding grounds begin their Prebasic molt early; primary molt starts late May–Jul and ends late Sep onward.

Similar in appearance to Juvenal plumage, but grayer, less spotty upperparts and less clearly defined streaks on breast. Head, neck, and mantle Dark Drab to Drab gray, with whitish fringes to feathers, giving faint streaky appearance; feathering above lores, around eye, and at base of lower mandible whiter than on rest of head; lores and crown have less white than elsewhere, giving darker appearance. On lower rump and uppertail-coverts, all barring subterminal (i.e., lack terminal Hair Brown rim to tip of Juvenal plumage). Underparts white, with fine Hair Brown streaking on throat, chest, sides of breast, and flanks. Chin, belly, and vent unmarked. Tail similar to Juvenal tail, but barring broader and less regular. Remiges as in Juvenal plumage, except that secondaries have white speckling on edges of inner web rather than distinct notches (see Burton and McNeil 1976). Primary-coverts Sepia, with white tips. Other wing-coverts Hair Brown to Drab gray, with white notches. Underwing-coverts and axillaries like those of Juvenal plumage.

Definitive Alternate Plumage

Definitive Prealternate molt partial; occurs late Feb–early May; earlier in South America, where molt often completed before migration (McNeil 1970). Head, neck, underparts, about half of mantle and scapulars, some median and lesser upperwing-coverts, inner or all tertials, and central 1–2 pairs of tail-feathers molted in most individuals. Some birds, especially males, have more extensive molt of upperparts and upperwing-coverts than others.

Darker than other plumages, with more extensive, bolder markings, especially on underparts. Head Blackish Neutral Gray, with white spots on crown and forehead and even white streaking on sides of head and on neck; feathering around eye and above lores has more white than elsewhere, creating eye-ring and short, ill-defined supercilium; lores and ear-coverts have less white. Feathers of mantle and upper rump Blackish Neutral Gray, fringed or spotted with white; scapulars Blackish Neutral Gray, with white notches along edges; lower rump-feathers and uppertail-coverts white, with Vandyke Brown bars. Chin white; throat and foreneck streaked Blackish Neutral Gray and white; chest and sides of breast white, with heavy Blackish Neutral Gray barring extending (though reduced) to flanks and undertail-coverts. Remainder of underparts white, though sometimes stained. Central tail-feathers Light Drab with Hair Brown and white barring along edges; others barred Hair Brown to Sepia and Light Drab to white. Wing-coverts and tertials Blackish Neutral Gray, with white notches along edges; some notches on larger coverts and tertials Dark Drab or Light Drab, becoming white toward edges; feathers of Definitive Alternate plumage contrast with worn, retained feathers of Definitive Basic plumage, which are Dark Drab to Drab gray, with little white remaining. Underwing-coverts are like those of Juvenal plumage. Remiges and outer rectrices retained from Definitive Basic plumage.

Bill And Gape

Bill Jet Black (89) in breeding adults, two-toned in downy young; proximal two-thirds Dark Neutral Gray (83), and distal third Blackish Neutral Gray. At other times of year, most birds have variable Tawny Olive (223D) or Buff (24; occasionally orange; Wilds 1982) area at base. Gape pinkish.

Iris

Warm Sepia (221A).

Legs And Feet

Bright Orange Yellow (18) in spring, Clay Color (123B) to Yellow Ocher (123C) later in breeding season; rarely orange red (Wilds 1982). Downy young have Clay Color to Yellow Ocher soles, webbing, and backs of legs; front of legs and tops of feet tinged Medium Neutral Gray (84) or Pearl Gray (81).