Migration

Most populations considered nonmigratory (Meanley 1985, Eddleman 1989). Individuals from s. New England to central N. Carolina are largely migratory, although some remain on breeding areas in winter (Stewart 1954, Meanley 1985, Sibley 1993). Individuals breeding on s. Atlantic Coast of U.S. may make short-distance winter migration, as suggested by limited banding data (Hon et al. 1977). Elsewhere unclear; some individuals of most subspecies undertake erratic postbreeding movements (Crawford et al. 1983; see Demography and populations: range, below). Claim of migration for yumanensis along lower Colorado River and at Salton Sea, CA, based on indirect evidence (Tomlinson and Todd 1973, Smith 1974, Bennett and Ohmart 1978, Am. Ornithol. Union 1983), but could not be confirmed by radiotelemetry studies (Eddleman 1989, Conway 1990).

Timing of spring migration poorly known. Individuals begin calling in mid-to late Mar in New Jersey and Virginia (Kozicky and Schmidt 1949, MacNamara and Udell 1970, Meanley 1985, Sibley 1993, see Fig. 4). Continue to arrive through early Apr (Meanley 1985). No information on spring routes.

Fall migration begins late Aug and early Sep in Virginia and New Jersey (Stewart 1954, Mangold 1974, Sibley 1993). Timing variable depending on weather; favorable conditions include passage of cold front and a tailwind. Peak varies from year to year: Sep–Oct in New Jersey (Kozicky and Schmidt 1949), late Sep–early Oct in N. Carolina (Adams and Quay 1958). Arrival on wintering areas begins mid-Sep in S. Carolina (Stewart 1951). Fall migration on Atlantic Coast of U.S. extends through Oct and Nov (Meanley 1985, Taylor and Kershner 1986).

Route of migration probably along coast, but individuals may appear up to 330 km inland during autumn (Murray 1929, Meanley 1985). Individuals migrating along eastern shore of Delmarva Peninsula cross from Cape Charles, 30 km across mouth of Chesapeake Bay, then to Back Bay, VA, and to N. Carolina border (Meanley 1985). Individuals that breed in New Jersey and Maryland have been documented in winter as far south as central Florida and west to Florida Panhandle (Stewart 1951, Crawford et al. 1983). Specimens identified as crepitans (breeding in N. Carolina and north) collected from Florida at Ft. Myers, Tarpon Springs, Turkey Point (Franklin Co.), Shell Point (Wakulla Co.), and WDBO TV tower (Orange Co.; Crawford et al. 1983). Birds from s. Atlantic Coast (waynei) possibly partial migrants, but specimen records from Florida in “winter” are mostly from periods of postbreeding and prebreeding dispersal, and cited banding records are likely crepitans individuals from breeding areas farther north (Crawford et al. 1983, T. Hon pers. comm.).

Extralimital records may represent migrants or dispersing juveniles and adults. Such accidental records are from New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward I. (Godfrey 1986), Maine (Forbush 1925, Packard 1958), New Hampshire (Forbush 1925), and Bermuda (Spittal Pond; Amos 1991). Occasional inland records of East Coast vagrants include w. Maryland (Martin 1962); Lexington, VA; near Stapleton, NE; Raleigh, NC (McCullough 1944); central New York, Vermont, W. Virginia (Forbush 1925, Am. Ornithol. Union 1983); Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, Lancaster Co., and Latrobe, Westmoreland Co.; Russell 1994); and Lake Nasworthy, Tom Green Co., TX (Burt et al. 1987). Wanders casually to Tucson, AZ (WRE); Farallon Is., CA; n. California (Humboldt Bay); and s. Baja California (Todos Santos; Am. Ornithol. Union 1983). Regularly reported at inland sites near coastal California (Orr 1939, Zembal et al. 1985).

Poorly known. Migrates at night and sometimes strikes objects such as TV towers, wires, or tall buildings (Crawford et al. 1983, Meanley 1985). Altitude unknown, but presumed to be low, as with other rails (Forbush 1925, Meanley 1985), possibly because flight is energetically expensive for rails and flight may be less energetically costly at low altitudes (Klaassen 1996). Speed of migration poorly known; estimated at 480 km/3–4 d in N. Carolina (Adams and Quay 1958). One immature banded 26 Aug 1950 was recovered in ne. Florida 24 Sep 1950 (Stewart 1954). Individuals land in marshes during the day, but usually move on within 1 d. Some-times grounded and disoriented during inclement weather, especially fog (Adams and Quay 1958).

No information.