Sounds

Figure 2. Vocalizations of American and Pacific Golden-plovers.

Vocalizations

Development

No data available.

Vocal Array

Known repertoires incomplete. Many vocalizations of each form similar but often distinctive during breeding and nonbreeding seasons. Nine types of vocalizations described here. On breeding grounds, have (1) Repetitive Call accompanying territorial display flight by males; (2) musical, Complex Whistle used in aggression and intrapair communication; and a variety of mono- and polysyllabic calls used in (3) Alarm/Distraction, (4) Aggression, (5) Courtship, and (6) Intrapair Communication. In nonbreeding season, have (7) well-described Flight Calls during migration and on wintering grounds, (8) Alarm Calls, and (9) Aggression Calls (last 2 calls best known in Pacific Golden-Plover).

Repetitive Call (1). Also termed “rhythmically repeated call” (Miller 1996) or “song” (Brykjedal and Thompson 1998). Given during Butterfly Display (see Behavior: spacing and agonistic behavior, below) and differs strikingly between species. In American Golden-Plover, an abrupt tlink or tdlink (rendered tud’ling by Murdoch 1885, toojick by Höhn 1957, ktoodlee by Drury 1961, chu-leek or too-lick by Parmelee et al. 1967, tulik or ptulick by Byrkjedal and Thompson 1998) repeated at rates of 50–130/min (Connors et al. 1993, Miller 1996; see Fig. 2A); in Pacific Golden-Plover, a plaintive pee-chew-ee (rendered pee-er-wee by J. T. Nichols inBent 1929, tee-tyu-eet byKondratiev 1982 , ptee-oo-leeee by Byrkjedal and Thompson 1998) at rates of 15–40/min (Connors et al. 1993, Miller 1996; see Fig. 2B).

Complex Whistle (2). Also termed “long call” (Sauer 1962), “song” (Miller 1996), or “trilling song” (Byrkjedal and Thompson 1998). Given by male during descent and on ground immediately after alighting from Butterfly Display flight; usually repeated twice on ground in rapid succession with simultaneous head-pumping. Female often echoes call and also pumps head. Male (and to a lesser extent female) frequently gives call from ground or air during intra- or interspecific chases or territorial interactions, and in response to intruders passing overhead. Occasionally given by male during Butterfly Display flight. Basic call in both species is wit-weeyou-wit, with somewhat more warbling quality in Pacific Golden-Plover (Connors et al. 1993; see Figs. 2C and D). Not uncommon to hear variations in which ≥1 syllables repeated or slightly altered. Drury (1961) described several versions of American Golden-Plover Complex Whistle, including tsee-witwit-tsee, ka-sweeeooowit, and kloo tswit-tswit kloo; Byrkjedal and Thompson (1998) likened it to witt-wee-wyu-witt-witt. J. T. Nichols (inBent 1929) rendered Pacific Golden-Plover call as piterweeu, piterweeu, piterwit or peeperwip, peeperweeu, peeperwip, noting similarity to calls of the Whip-poor-will (Caprimulgus vociferus); Sauer (1962) as quee quee que yah, queequeequeeah, de de dee yah, and kwe kwe kwee oih; Kondratiev (1982) as teep-teeyu-veet-veet-teeyu-veet; Byrkjedal and Thompson (1998) as t‘wee-witt-wiy-wyu-witt-wju.

Alarm/Distraction Calls (3). Differ between the species, with many minor variants reported. In American Golden-Plover, kleeep (OWJ) or more drawn-out klee-yeep shifting to killik-killik as threat increases (Connors et al. 1993; see Fig. 2E), kill-ee-oh kill-ee or pull-ee-oo plee-ee (Sutton and Parmelee 1956), te-tee-duiee (Höhn 1957), kleeear and turdileee (Drury 1961). In Pacific Golden-Plover, peee (varies from shorter to more drawn-out versions; OWJ) shifting with increasing threat to deedleek (Connors et al. 1993; see Fig. 2F), or pfeeb shifting to pfeebleeb or deedleek (Sauer 1962). Shift to different call with increasing threat not irreversible, as birds often switch back and forth; also highly agitated American Golden-Plovers call klee-yeep instead of killik-killik during injury feigning (OWJ; see Behavior: predation, below). Alarm/Distraction Calls similar but probably not identical in both sexes. The peee or pfeeb call characteristic of breeding Pacific Golden-Plovers is occasionally given by premigrants nearing departure from Hawaii (OWJ).

Aggression Calls (4). Those of American Golden-Plover on ground reported same as Alarm/Distraction vocalizations (Drury 1961); in Pacific Golden-Plover, a chattering but melodic de rede rede rederedere (Sauer 1962). During aggressive aerial pursuit chases of American Golden-Plover, pursuer calls tdlinkit-tdlinkit (Connors et al. 1993; see Fig. 2G), or toodleeka-toodleeka (Drury 1961) and pumps head vigorously; no comparable call detected in Pacific Golden-Plover.

Courtship Calls (5). Not yet described in American Golden-Plover; captive Pacific Golden-Plover males courting on ground gave soft trilled teeree teeree and bursts of pk pk pk (Sauer 1962).

Intrapair Calls (6). Subtle, undetected calls likely used by both species in intrapair communication. In Pacific Golden-Plovers, occasional, very soft peee or pfeeb calls given by both members of pairs during foraging (OWJ), also Byrkjedal and Thompson (1998) describe pyt sounds by pair members during pre-laying interactions.

Flight Calls (7). Vary in both species. Urner (1933) lists extensive “vocabulary” of 20 calls for migrating American Golden-Plovers; most frequently heard were whistled que and que-del . More recent descriptions (Alström 1990, Paulson 1993) as follows: for American Golden-Plover, tyy-ee or tuu-ee, also tuu-u-ee and tu-uu-ee (Alström), queedle (Paulson); for Pacific Golden-Plover, chu-it, chu-eet, or chu-ee (uh) (Alström), chuwi or chuweedle (Paulson). Flight Calls of American Golden-Plover usually with stress on first or second syllable, of Pacific Golden-Plover on second syllable.

Alarm Calls (8). Those of Pacific Golden-Plover include drawn-out chu-EET or chu-EE(uh) with emphatic stress as shown (Alström 1990), sharp pseeep (OWJ), or wheet (Paulson 1993). Additional observations (OWJ): Alström (1990) and Paulson (1993) renditions are consistent with Pacific Golden-Plover alarm vocalizations on Oahu, HI, wintering grounds; the frequently heard chu-EET and chu-EE(uh) calls of disturbed wintering birds have not been detected on breeding grounds, possibly Alarm Calls of breeding birds (both species) restricted to those already described (see 3, above).

Aggression Calls (9).Aggressive interactions and accompanying calls very common among wintering Pacific Golden-Plovers in Hawaii, especially territorial individuals and birds at nocturnal roosts (see Behavior: spacing and agonistic behavior, below). Calls melodious and varied: pseer, sweerit, psweer, psweer-wit, pswer-pswer-pswerrr-wit-wit (Johnson and Nakamura 1981, OWJ). Of these, the longer versions are either the same or very similar to Complex Whistle of breeding birds.

The acoustic features of Pluvialis calls indicate that the Repetitive Call is “ancestral to the genus” and demonstrate obvious homologies between certain elements of the Repetitive Calls and Complex Whistles of American and Pacific golden-plovers (Miller 1996). Additional information on breeding and nonbreeding vocalizations (mostly minor variations) can be found in numerous sources, the most useful probably being Pym (1982) and Cramp and Simmons (1983).

Geographic Variation

Mostly unknown. Foregoing descriptions of calls from relatively few sites on the breeding and wintering grounds.

Phenology

Probably most vocal during breeding season, but migrants and wintering birds also vocalize frequently.

Daily Pattern Of Vocalizing

Repetitive Call during Butterfly Display is heard throughout the day and night during preincubation phase of breeding cycle. According to Byrkjedal and Thompson (1998), repetitive calling is most frequent among unpaired Pacific Golden-Plover males which is consistent with the advertisement function of this call/display (see Behavior: sexual behavior, below). As incubation gets underway, repetitive call/display mostly restricted to male’s off-duty hours primarily at night (see Breeding: incubation, below). Other vocalizations vary with daily circumstances; no clear pattern.

Places Of Vocalizing

Repetitive Call and Flight Calls (1, 7) heard only during flight; Complex Whistle and Aggression Calls (2, 4, 9; breeding and nonbreeding seasons) mostly from ground, occasionally while in flight; Courtship and Intrapair Calls (5, 6) primarily on the ground, possibly during flight; Alarm/Distraction calls (3) from ground only; Alarm Calls (8, nonbreeding season) from ground and in flight. Ground calls given in extensive area around nest, initial alarm calls of incubating bird sometimes from nest itself. No perches required for vocalizations, though agitated bird often runs about in vicinity of nest, stopping and calling from rocks and other prominences. Use of shed reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) antlers “as territorial perches” by Pacific Golden-Plovers reported on St. Lawrence I., AK (Fay and Cade 1959). Presumably, any elevation, however slight, facilitates responses when threatened by intruder. Aerial calls, especially Repetitive Call, given over wide areas, often beyond apparent boundaries of territory (see Behavior: spacing and agonistic behavior, below). Calls of wintering birds not limited to specific sites.

Nonvocal Sounds

None reported.