Sounds

Development

No information about ontogenetic change in voice or vocal learning.

Vocal Array And Contexts

Apparently 2 song types, both given by males declaring and/or maintaining breeding territories. All other vocalizations are considered calls.

Territorial Song. A 3-syllabled whistle given by male during aerial display; breaks in middle, with middle syllable highest, and has been described as koódiloó, koódleeeoó or tiu-li, also a 2-syllabled kehweh (Drury 1961, Parmelee et al. 1967, Flint and Kondratiev 1977). Apparently functions both intra- and intersexually.

Trilled Song. Typically given when male descends to ground near female; described as melodious pljujutipljujut, followed by 2–3 sibilant notes tiut-tiut, then ringing trill prrlju-juju of about 1s, then again usual whistle tiu-li, tiu-li (Flint and Kondratiev 1977).

Threat Calls. Kleéeear given during ground display between males (Drury 1961), tiu-ut tiu-ut toward conspecifics in flight (Flint and Kondratiev 1977).

Alarm Calls. Given on breeding grounds (at or near nest, usually directed toward human intruder but also toward aerial predators) described by different authors as köp, kleeee, koódlee, and kéeku-kudléah; kidloóeeeoó when chasing Parasitic Jaeger (Stercorarius parasiticus) (Drury 1961).

Distraction Calls. Sibilant rolling call followed by whistled too-ree given before and hoarse kleee given during distraction displays (Drury 1961, Cramp and Simmons 1983). Distraction and alarm calls grade into one another.

Flight/contact Calls. Primary call is 3-noted whee-er-eee or pee-o-wee . Often given by single birds, perhaps to promote flocking or location of others; higher frequency during poor weather further indicates this function (Cramp and Simmons 1983). Both this call and single notes used by male approaching nest for incubation changeover (Mayfield 1973). Soft, mellow, 2-noted whistle also heard from flocks (Bent 1929).

Contact Calls to Young. Quivering trill given to young leaving or entering nest during brooding or to peeping chicks; stimulates chicks to approach parent (Hussell and Page 1976).

Chick Calls. Peeping notes given by chicks apparently serve as contact calls (Hussell and Page 1976). Chick heard calling from within pipped egg (Mayfield 1973).

Phenology

Contact calls, primarily 3-noted whistle, only vocalizations normally heard during nonbreeding season. Surprisingly, no vocalizations described for maintenance of nonbreeding territoriality. Adult vocalizations during breeding season much more varied and include songs, threat calls, alarm calls, distraction calls, and calls to young.

Daily Pattern Of Vocalizing

None detected. Calls and songs heard almost throughout 24-h day on breeding grounds (DRP).

Places Of Vocalizing

Song given by male in butterfly flight at about 30 m over territory. Flight/contact call given in flight or at rest. Other calls associated with breeding season given on ground, not necessarily from high point.

Social Context And Presumed Functions Of Vocalizations

See Vocal Array.