Sounds

Figure 3. Primary Song of the Seaside Sparrow

Figure 4. Flight Song of the Seaside Sparrow, Suffolk, Co., NY (JSG).

Figure 5. Representative calls of the Seaside Sparrow

Figure 6. Tchi vocalization, Suffolk Co., NY (JSG).

Vocalizations: Song

Development

Juvenile males give practice or subsong (a muted, complex warble interspersed with call notes and snatches of Primary Song; Post and Greenlaw 1975) as early as Jul in n. Florida (McDonald 1983) and Jul–Aug in s. Florida (Werner and Woolfenden 1983). Early in spring, young males begin to sing nearly normal Primary Songs, correlated with establishment of first territories (McDonald 1983).

Vocal Array

Primary Song. Primary Song phrase lasts 1.0–1.5 s. Songs more complex than human ear can easily detect and are composed of variety of sonic characters (Fig. 3). These include clicks, buzzes, trills, and tonal figures, which are whistled sounds taking forms of glissandi, warbles, strokes, and constant pitch noises, sustained for up to 60 msec (Hardy 1983). Songs of northern birds (A. m. maritimus) commonly open with short, low trill (2 kHz) consisting of 4–6 clicks, then a single wide-frequency note (4.5–5.5 kHz) followed immediately by a central, coarse trill-phrase (2–5.5 kHz) and 2 abrupt, wide-frequency elements (first descending, other ascending in frequency). Songs in all populations typically end in distinctive terminal-buzz (highly frequency modulated), which varies in pitch and noisiness (Post and Greenlaw 1975, Hardy 1983).

Song structure varies geographically, most notably in introductory notes and phrases (Hardy 1983). Some variation may be attributable to different vegetative structure of habitats where song is transmitted (Lee 1976). Long I., NY, birds (A. m. maritimus) have lowest-pitched terminal buzzes, followed by those of s. Texas (A. m. fisheri). Only Long I. birds thus far known to be distinguishable by pitch of utterance. A. m. nigrescens and A. m. mirabilis had simplest Primary Songs, composed only of clicks and buzzes (Hardy 1983).

Only males give characteristic Primary Song. Bill is elevated, or thrown back, and opened widely. Head may bob. During bouts, songs initiated on average every 6.0 s (n = 30, SD 1.49, range 4.3–10.0 s).

Muted Song. During aggressive encounters, males may give muted (“whisper”) song (Post and Greenlaw 1975, Werner 1975, McDonald 1983). In contrast to normal song, muted song delivered with bill closed or nearly closed.

Flight Song. Males have well-developed Flight Song, 3–4 s long (Fig. 4). Utter series of si and tuck notes while ascending to 5–15 m. At apogee, complete Primary Song phrase given; sometimes 1–2 abbreviated phrases added. Frequency in Florida: 1/10 min in 4-ha area with about 10 males in residence (McDonald 1983). In New York, males give Flight Songs before arrival of females, but rate increases after females on territory (Post and Greenlaw 1975). Flight Songs more frequent after morning peak of Primary Song (JSG).

Other. Rarely, females give songlike vocalization, probably homologous to Primary Song. Transliterated as tijeep, it has same tone as trill of Primary Song. In 3 observed instances, given with wing raise (see Behavior: Agonistic Behavior), just before or after copulation (Post and Greenlaw 1975).

Phenology

Males sing intermittently in winter, whether on nesting area or on separate wintering sites Earliest singing by overwintering birds on Long I., NY (A. m. maritimus), 9 Apr (WP). Migratory males begin singing immediately on arrival at breeding grounds (Long Island: 21 Apr, WP, JSG; Rhode Island: 30 Apr, DeRagon 1988).

Singing most intense early in breeding season, before and just after mating. At Gulf Hammock, FL, weather an important modifier of singing behavior. Early in spring, birds sing more as day warms, up to about 20°C. Later in breeding season, singing decreases with increase in temperature; at 32°C, practically all singing ceases (McDonald 1983). On warm, sunny days in New York, singing less frequent after 0900 h, continues somewhat later on overcast days.

Most singing halts during height of molt (Aug–Sep). In nonmigratory populations, singing resumes in early fall (for A. m. nigrescens, as early as 7 Oct; C. Trost, pers. comm.).

Daily Pattern Of Vocalizing

Singing peaks occur just after dawn from about 0600 to 0800 h (48% of male’s time spent singing) and at dusk from 1800 to 2000 h (38%) (Post and Greenlaw 1975). At peak of breeding season, early-morning songs given in bouts (continuous period of singing) after which singer changes perch and resumes bout or initiates different activity. Song bout duration averages 120.1 s (SD = 137.2, n = 40, range 3–605; WP). Single songs given at night.

Places Of Vocalizing

Frequently use exposed perches on tops of S. alterniflora, Phragmites, and groundsel. When predator approaches, individual moves to hidden position below, but occasionally continues singing. Seldom sing on perches > 3 m. In NY, wooden stakes 1-1.5 m high were used by most members of a marked population of > 100 males. In S. Carolina over 6 yr, stakes of the same height and distribution were used by only one of 64 males. Period spent singing from single perch varies from < 1 min to nearly 8 min. Sometimes sings while foraging on ground.

Repertoire And Delivery Of Songs

In n. Florida, individual males may sing 2–4 song types (Hardy 1983); most song types shared among males within population (McDonald 1983). Males sing throughout breeding season. Song rate varies with stage of nesting: high during pre-pairing and incubation, low during nestling and fledgling stages. Song rate within 1 bout: Gulf Hammock, FL: 6–9 songs/min (McDonald 1983); Oak Beach, NY: 10.6/min (Post and Greenlaw 1975). Over 1-h period in New Jersey, song rate 6.6/min (Woolfenden 1956). Countersinging frequent and may involve up to 4 birds. Song rate of individuals may increase during countersinging. Countersinging birds usually alternate songs but occasionally overlap (McDonald 1983).

Social Context And Presumed Functions Of Songs

When countersinging, opposing males usually sing different song types. During experimental broadcasts of songs, territorial male ignores song of neighbor played at edge of territory but responds vigorously to playback of own song, apparently regarding it as that of new bird. Males do not consistently change song patterns after changing song perches (McDonald 1983).

At start of breeding season, temporarily muted males unable to attract mates, but after voice regained, most could. In middle of breeding season, loss of voice led to loss of mates. Territories also shrank or were lost. After return of singing ability, altered males able to regain old territories or establish new ones. When territorial male unable to sing, intrusion rate went up, and rate of close-range visual displaying, including fighting, increased (McDonald 1989).

Vocalizations: Calls

Adults have at least 8 distinct calls, some of which (tchi and whinny) approach Primary Song in complexity. All given by both sexes throughout year (Post and Greenlaw 1975, Werner 1975, McDonald 1983).

Tsip (tic). See Figure 5A . Single note, moderately pitched, sibilant, and relatively short. Associated with mobbing (12 of 19 cases) or approach of predator (7 of 19). Rapidly repeated tsips (si twitter of Post and Greenlaw 1975) often given when nest is approached. Associated postures: sleeked plumage, crouch, wing-tail flicking, and bobbing (see Agonistic Behavior: communicative interactions). Often given in flight, and incorporated into introductory segment of Flight Song.

Tuck. See Figure 5B . Short and abrupt, with wide frequency range. Given during intraspecific aggressive interactions (37 of 48 cases) and used to mob predators (5 of 48); appears to be given when tendency to attack outweighs that to flee. Rate of calling varies greatly (35–165/min; Post and Greenlaw 1975). Associated postures: body plumage normal, crown feathers ruffled; little or no wing-tail flicking. Probably same as tsuck alarm call of Woolfenden (1956), chip call of Werner and Woolfenden (1983) and “nest departure call” of McDonald and Greenberg (1991).

Seep (cee). High-pitched, sibilant whistle (McDonald 1983) that carries poorly. Usually uttered during chases (Post and Greenlaw 1975, Werner and Woolfenden 1983); also given as contact call by flocking adults and juveniles (Woolfenden 1956, Werner 1975) and by female during copulation (Post and Greenlaw 1975).

Zuck. Figure 5C . Harsh, low-pitched growling call. Uttered during intensive territorial disputes (“attack call” of McDonald 1989). Often uttered by fighting individuals, especially those engaged in breast-to-breast fighting (Post and Greenlaw 1975) (see below, Agonistic Behavior: physical interactions). Functions as “threat” (mainly defensive). Given on ground and in flight. Also given by juveniles in flocks (McDonald 1983). Probably homologous to squeaz call of A. m. mirabilis (Werner and Woolfenden 1983).

Chew. . Sometimes repeated in short series (Post and Greenlaw 1975); may be less intense version of zuck (with high frequencies absent) or distinct call that combines elements of zuck (threat) and jyuu (of tchi call, see below).

Whinny. Figure 5E . Nasal, whining vocalization with distinct quaver that varies in length and loudness. Appears to function mainly in intersexual communication, often in precopulatory context; often uttered in association with tchi (see below). Female uses it in presence of male (14 of 19 cases). Body postures: crouch, neck moderately extended, wings raised asymmetrically, body feathers moderately fluffed. In 1 instance, nearby male alternated muted songs with mate’s Whinnies (Post and Greenlaw 1975).

Tchi. Figure 6 . Transcribed as si si tchi-tchi-tchi-jyuu jyuu . Introductory tchi repeated as chatter, followed by downward slurred chatter, transliterated as jyuuu. Although 2 chatters are functionally related, they may be used separately and could be treated as distinct calls (JSG). A complex vocalization associated with flight or locomotion in presence of mate or intruder. Often accompanies wing-raise. Probably same vocalization Norris (1968) described as jee-jee-jee-jee-jee-jeeeu-jeeeu (A. m.fisheri) and Trost (1968) described as tu-tu-tu-tu-twi-twi-twi (A. m. nigrescens).

Scree (Zhree). Similar in structure to distress calls given by other emberizids (McDonald 1983: Fig. 8c). Given by adults, fledglings, and nestlings when handled (Post and Greenlaw 1975, McDonald 1983, Werner and Woolfenden 1983).

Begging Calls. Peep call given by young through day 4. By day 5, peep replaced by “cedar call,” transliterated as ce-ce-ce...ce (Werner and Woolfenden 1983).

Nonvocal Sounds

Not known.