Habitat

Breeding Range

Nests in a wide array of ecological types throughout s. Canadian provinces, lower 48 states in U.S., n.-central Mexico, and Greater Antilles (Sayre and Silvy 1993). Precise description of breeding habitat is difficult because of species’ tremendous adaptability (Eng 1986). Nest locations are on the ground, on ledges, and in bushes and trees. Quay (1951) found nests in 55 species of shrubs and trees in North Carolina, with 2/3 of the nests in conifers. McClure (1943) documented the preference for conifer and elm trees as nest sites in southern Iowa, with only anecdotal ground nest sites. Cowan (1952) reported the majority of nest sites in southern California study sites were on the ground, whereas Miller et al. (2001) reported the oaks and willows were most frequently used in northern California sites. Doves preferred mixed honey mesquite and salt cedar for nest sites in southern Arizona (Cunningham et al. 1997). Drobney et al. (1998) reported that although continuous habitats (e.g., agricultural fields and pastures) were selected less than edge habitats as nest sites in Missouri, continuous habitats could contribute substantially to annual productivity because of the extensive availability of these habitats and comparable nest success.

Generally shuns deep woods or extensive forests and selects more open woodlands and edges between forest and prairie biomes for nesting (Tomlinson et al. 1993).

Alteration of original vegetation during the spread of European settlement in North America was beneficial for this species, with creation of openings in extensive forests and plowing of grasslands for cereal-grain production of particular importance. Planting of shelterbelts and development of stock ponds have increased suitability of agricultural landscapes in mid-west and w. U.S. (Tomlinson et al. 1994). Additional habitat has been created by planting of trees and shrubs in cities, towns, and suburbs. No aversion to nesting close to humans.

Spring And Fall Migration

Specific habitats used during migration not well studied but do not appear to differ markedly from those used at other times of year. Habitat quality is determined primarily by food availability and roosting and loafing cover.

Winter Range

Generally south of 40th parallel (40°N; Tomlinson et al. 1994). Some small pockets overwinter as far north as s. Canada where food is available. Detailed accounts of winter habitat use are lacking, but winter roost sites appear to consist of small- to medium-sized woodlots with suitable protection from the elements (Tomlinson et al. 1994). Birds regularly move between roost sites and specific feeding sites (e.g., cereal-grain fields) until food disappears, with considerable movement while searching for new feeding areas (Tomlinson et al. 1994).