Sounds

Vocalizations

Development

No geographic variation in vocalizations, even among ecogeographically separated populations, so apparently little vocal learning (Miller 1986).

Vocal Array

Several calls and songs used in various contexts during breeding season. Unpaired males emit 3 main types of vocalizations to attract mates and in agonistic or sexual interactions (Rhythmically Repeated Calls, song, and chatter; Miller 1986).

Rhythmically repeated calls (RRCs) (Fig. 3A). Simple, rapidly repeated pulses (described as high-pitched, shrill, rising treee by Hayman et al. 1986) of short duration intended for communication with conspecifics at relatively close range (Miller 1983b, 1986, Miller et al. 1988). Breaks in rhythm of RRCs are associated with structural deviations of calls. Subtle variation in unbroken rhythms includes a correlation between call duration and frequency modulation (Miller 1984). Most (60–82%) variation in RRCs occurs among, rather than within, males (Miller 1986).

Chatter (Fig. 3B). Series of repeated triplets with varying frequency across contexts, restricted to males (Miller 1983b, 1986).

Song (Fig. 3C). Rich, complex sequence containing 4 elements, repeated rapidly 1–4 times, given mainly by males but also by females (Miller 1983b, 1984, 1986).

Alarm calls Two types: Type 1 loud, brief, and slow rhythmic screech; Type 2 more intense, trilling screech (Miller 1985). Type 1 call always precedes Type 2. Very intense and noisy calls compared to other vocalizations. In early distraction sequences, vocalizations vary greatly in structure and include noisy components. Later in a sequence, calls become less noisy, more uniform, are uttered more rhythmically. Both sexes engage in distraction vocalizations, with no geographic variation (Miller 1985). A simple seeet given as an alarm note, emitted at 2.0–4.9 kHz (Cramp and Simmons 1983).

Flight call . In nonbreeding season, variably described as kreeep or threeep, given singly or in slow series of 2–6 (Johnsgard 1981, Veit and Jonsson 1984); as a 2-syllable, high-pitched slightly rolled kree-eeet or kre-eep (Veit and Jonsson 1984, Paulson 1993); or as a high-pitched, shrill, rising trreee (Hayman et al. 1986). Higher pitched and less musical than flight call of Long-toed Stint, slightly lower pitched and less ringing than that of Temminck’s Stint (Veit and Jonsson 1984), and noticeably different from that of Western Sandpiper (squeak) and Semipalmated Sandpiper’s single, short chert (Paulson 1993).

Other . Other vocalizations include a soft chuff, like an explosive sneeze, given with bill open (Paulson 1993).

Vocalizations Of Parents With Chicks On Nest

Four kinds of vocalizations during hatching and while brooding chicks on nest: Cluck, Compound Cluck, Trill, and Song (Miller 1985). Cluck: often given to chicks on and out of nest (Miller 1984, 1985); varies from single, soft calls to rapid, loud sequences (Miller 1985). Compound Cluck: merged sequences of Clucks (Miller 1985). Trill: rapidly and rhythmically emitted series of brief elements (Miller 1985). Song: similar to song described above but softer, briefer, and less complex, performed by both sexes (Miller 1985).

Phenology

Flight displays and associated calls (RRCs) initiated by unpaired males when establishing nesting territories shortly after arriving on breeding grounds from early May to Jun (Miller 1979b, 1983a, 1983b, 1984). Display flights and RRCs most intense early in spring, cease rapidly after pairing; performed less frequently during high winds, heavy rain, and fog (Miller 1979b).

Vocalizations associated with breeding cease shortly after adults abandon young or young fledge. Flight Call and “seet” Alarm Note given throughout year.

Daily Pattern Of Vocalization

Intensity of RRCs higher in morning than later in day (Miller 1979b). RRCs and song intensity decline seasonally (and ultimately cease) as display-flight duration is reduced (Miller 1979b).

Places Of Vocalization

Courtship RRCs usually emitted during hovering display flights (see Behavior: Sexual behavior, pair bond), but also from ground and tree perches and during rise and descent (Townsend 1927, Miller 1979a, 1983b). Song and chatter occur in air near end of display flights or during aerial fights, and on ground (Miller 1979b).

Seeet antiaerial predator alarm note emitted while crouched on ground (JMC). Type 1 and 2 alarm calls emitted mainly in air, occasionally on ground (Miller 1985).

Distraction vocalizations given when incubating adult is flushed from nest by observer or predator, usually low to ground as bird flies off, and when parents with chicks circle over observer.

Nonalarm vocalizations given to chicks while adults on ground near chicks or while brooding them in or out of nest (Miller 1985).

Soft chuff given on ground when conspecific nearby (Paulson 1993).

Repertoire And Delivery Of Songs

Few data available. RRCs emitted during display flights average 367 ms separated by pauses of 103 ms , or about 2/s (Miller 1983b, 1986). Songs and other vocalizations qualitatively very similar across breeding range (Miller 1986).

Social Context And Presumed Functions Of Vocalizations

RRCs given mainly during display flights where they advertise presence of males over prospective nesting areas (Miller 1986); also given softly during ground courtship (Miller 1979b).

Song given occasionally during male display flights but is most common near end of display flights, during aerial chases of males or females, and during ground courtship; also after landing on ground (Miller 1979b, 1983b). Song given by both sexes during gathering of chicks for brooding and brooding chicks, or when excited by chick activity (Miller 1983b, 1985).

Chatter given during descent phase of display flights, when males chase females and males in air, and during a wide range of agonistic interactions (Miller 1979b, 1983b).

Clucking typically heard as parents lower onto nests or while chicks move beneath them. Context of Compound Clucking unknown (Miller 1985).

Trills given while parents brood and gather chicks to be brooded, for first few days after hatching (Miller 1985).

Birds in distraction displays always vocalize, presumably to aid their diversionary behavior and distract potential nest predators (Gochfield 1984, Miller 1985). Diversionary alarm calls given by parents with chicks during approach and presence of predator or observer. Type 1 calls indicate greater alarm than Type 2 and are given more often during hatching and early chick stages, when parents more vigilant (Miller 1983b, 1985, JMC).

Soft, explosive chuff given by foraging migrants thought to be warning for nearby birds to keep away (Paulson 1993).

Alarm Call seeet given by individuals in flocks on ground when aerial predators are spotted; warns others while being possibly non-localizable by predators, thus placing caller at no additional risk of predation (Buchanan 1989).

Nonvocal Sounds

None known.

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