Already a subscriber? Sign in Don't have a subscription? Subscribe Now
Black Skimmer
Rynchops niger
Order
CHARADRIIFORMES
– Family
LARIDAE
Authors: Gochfeld, Michael, and Joanna Burger

Bibliography

Ali, S. and S. D. Ripley. 1983. Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. compact ed. Oxford Univ. Press, Delhi, India.

Alström, P. and P. Colston. 1991. A field guide to the rare birds of Britain and Europe. Harper Collins, Jersey, U.K.

American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Check-list of North American birds. 6th ed. Am. Ornithol. Union, Lawrence, KS.

Arthur, S. C. 1921. The feeding habits of the Black Skimmer. Auk 38:566-574.

Austin, Jr., O. L. 1933. The status of Cape Cod terns in 1933. Bird Band. 4:190-198.

Bales, B. R. 1919. Twenty-four hours in a Black Skimmer colony. Wilson Bull. 31:83-87.

Bent, A. C. 1921. Life histories of North American gulls and terns. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 113:1-337.

Binford, L. C. 1989. A distributional survey of the birds of the Mexican state of Oaxaca. Ornithol. Monogr. 43:1-418.

Black, B. B. and L. D. Harris. 1981. Winter foraging pattern of Gulf Coast Black Skimmers. Col. Waterbirds 4:187-193.

Black, B. B. and L. D. Harris. 1983. Feeding habitat of Black Skimmers wintering on the Florida Gulf Coast. Wilson Bull. 95:404-415.

Blake, E. R. 1977. Manual of Neotropic birds. Vol. 1. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

Blake, R. W. 1985. A model of foraging efficiency and daily energy budget in the Black Skimmer (Rynchops nigra). Can. J. Zool. 63:42-48.

Blus, L. J. and C. J. Stafford. 1980. Breeding biology and relation of pollutants to Black Skimmers and Gull-billed Terns in South Carolina. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Scient. Rept.-Wildlife, no. 230.

Brewer, T. M., (Ed.). 1839. Wilson's American ornithology. T. L. Magagnos and Co. New York.

Buckley, P. A. and F. G. Buckley. 1980. Population and colony-site trends of Long Island waterbirds for five years in the mid-1970s. Trans. Linnaean Soc. New York 9:23-56.

Buckley, P. A., M. Gochfeld, and F. G. Buckley. 1978. Efficacy and timing of helicopter censuses of Black Skimmers and Common Terns on Long Island, NY: a preliminary analysis. Proc. Colon. Waterbird Group 1:48-61.

Bull, J. 1974. Birds of New York State. Comstock Publ. Ithaca, NY.

Burger, J. 1981a. Sexual differences in parental activities of breeding Black Skimmers. Am. Nat. 117:975-984.

Burger, J. 1981b. Aggressive behavior of Black Skimmers (Rynchops niger). Behaviour 76:207-227.

Burger, J. 1982a. The role of reproductive success in colony site selection and abandonment in Black Skimmers (Rynchops niger). Auk 99:109-115.

Burger, J. 1982b. Jamaica Bay studies: I. Environmental determinants of abundance and distribution of Common Terns (Sterna hirundo) and Black Skimmers (Rynchops niger) at an East Coast estuary. Col. Waterbirds 5:148-160.

Burger, J. and M. Gochfeld. 1990. The Black Skimmer: social dynamics of a colonial species. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.

Burger, J. and M. Gochfeld. 1992a. Experimental evidence for aggressive antipredator behavior in Black Skimmers (Rynchops niger). Aggressive Behav. 18:241-248.

Burger, J. and M. Gochfeld. 1992b. Heavy metal and selenium concentrations in Black Skimmers (Rynchops niger): gender differences. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 23:431-434.

Burger, J. and M. Gochfeld. 1992c. Terns for the better. Natural History 101:45-48.

Burger, J. and M. Gochfeld. 1993. Lead and cadmium accumulation in eggs and fledgling seabirds in the New York bight. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 12:261-267.

Bystrak, D. 1974. Wintering areas of bird species potentially hazardous to aircraft. Natl. Audubon Society, Washington, DC.

Clapp, R. B., M. K. Klimkiewicz, and J. H. Kennard. 1982. Longevity records of North American birds: Gaviidae through Alcidae. J. Field Ornithol. 53:81-124.

Clapp, R. B., D. Morgan-Jacobs, and R. C. Banks. 1983. Marine birds of the Southeastern United States. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., FWS/OBS 83/30, Washington, D.C.

Clayton, D. H., C. L. Hartley, and M. Gochfeld. 1979. Two optical tracking devices for nocturnal field studies. Proc. Colonial Waterbird Group 2:79-83.

Cogswell, H. L. 1977. Water birds of California. Univ. California Press, Berkeley.

Cramp, S. 1985. Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, vol. 4. terns to woodpeckers. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.

Cruickshank, A. D. 1942. Birds around New York City. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Handbook No. 13, New York.

Custer, T. W. and C. A. Mitchell. 1987. Organochlorine contaminants and reproductive success of Black Skimmers in South Texas, 1984. J. Field Ornithol. 58:480-489.

Davis, L. I. 1951. Fishing efficiency of the Black Skimmer. Condor 53:259.

Downer, R. H. L. and C. E. Liebelt. 1990. 1990 Long Island colonial waterbird and Piping Plover survey. New York Dept. Environ. Conserv. Stony Brook, NY.

Downing, R. L. 1973. A preliminary nesting survey of Least Terns and Black Skimmers in the East. Am. Birds 27:974-979.

Duffy, D. C. and D. N. Nettleship. 1992. Seabirds: management, problems, and research opportunities. Pages 525-546 in Wildlife 2001: populations. (McCullough, D. A. and R. H. Barrett, Eds.) Elsevier, London.

Eaton, E. H. 1910. Birds of New York. NY State Mus., Memoir 12, Albany, NY.

Erickson, R. A., S. F. Bailey, and A. D. Barron. 1986. Middle Pacific Coast region. Am. Birds 40:1251.

Erwin, R. M. 1977a. Black Skimmer breeding ecology and behavior. Auk 94:709-717.

Erwin, R. M. 1977b. Foraging and breeding adaptations to different food regimes in three seabirds: the Common Tern (Sterna hirundo), Royal Tern (Sterna maxima), and Black Skimmer (Rynchops niger). Ecology 58:389-397.

Erwin, R. M. 1979. Species interactions in a mixed colony of Common Terns (Sterna hirundo) and Black Skimmers (Rynchops niger) Anim. Behav. 27:1054-1062.

Erwin, R. M. 1980. Breeding habitat use by colonially nesting waterbirds under different regimes of disturbance. Biol. Conserv. 18:39-51.

Erwin, R. M. 1990. Feeding activities of Black Skimmers in Guyana. Colonial Waterbirds 13:70-71.

Erwin, R. M., J. Galli, and J. Burger. 1981. Colony site dynamics and habitat use in Atlantic Coast seabirds. Auk 98:550-556.

Erwin, R. M. and C. E. Korschgen. 1979. Coastal waterbird colonies: Maine to Virginia, 1977-an atlas showing colony locations and species composition. Biol. Serv., FWS/OBS 79/08. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv.

Fisk, E. J. 1978. Roof-nesting terns, skimmers, and plovers in Florida. Fla. Field Nat. 6:1-8.

Forbush, E. H. 1925. Birds of Massachusetts and other New England states, pt. 1. Mass. Dept. Agric. Springfield.

Frohling, R. C. 1965. American Oystercatcher and Black Skimmer nesting on salt marsh. Wilson Bull. 77:193-194.

Garrett, K. and J. Dunn. 1981. Birds of Southern California: status and distribution. Los Angeles Audubon Society, Los Angeles.

Gochfeld, M. 1971. Premature feather loss: a new disease of terns on Long Island, New York. Kingbird 21:206-211.

Gochfeld, M. 1973. Effect of artefact pollution on the viability of seabird colonies on Long Island, New York. Environ. Pollut. 4:1-6.

Gochfeld, M. 1974a. Waterbird colonies of Long Island, New York. II. Wantagh Parkway colony. Kingbird 24:47-51.

Gochfeld, M. 1974b. Prevalence of subcutaneous emphysema in young terns, skimmers and gulls. J. Wildlife Disease 10:115-120.

Gochfeld, M. 1978a. Colony and nest site selection by Black Skimmers. Proc. Colonial Waterbird Group 1:78-90.

Gochfeld, M. 1978b. Incubation behaviour in Common Terns: influence of windspeed and direction on orientation of incubating adults. Anim. Behav. 26:848-851.

Gochfeld, M. 1979a. Breeding synchrony in the Black Skimmer: colony vs. subcolonies. Proc. Colonial Waterbird Group 2:171-177.

Gochfeld, M. 1979b. Prevalence of oiled plumage of terns and skimmers on western Long Island, New York: baseline data prior to petroleum exploration. Environ. Pollut. 20:123-130.

Gochfeld, M. 1980. Mechanism and adaptive value of reproductive synchrony in colonial seabirds. Pages 207-270 in Behavior of marine animals, vol. 4: marine birds. (Burger, J., B. Olla, and H. Winn, Eds.) Plenum Press, New York.

Gochfeld, M. 1981a. Responses of young Black Skimmers to high-intensity distress notes. Anim. Behav. 29:1137-1145.

Gochfeld, M. 1981b. Differences in behavioral responses of young Common Terns and Black Skimmers to intrusion and handling. Colonial Waterbirds. 4:47-53.

Gochfeld, M. 1984. Anti-predator behavior: aggressive and distraction displays of shorebirds. Pages 289-378 in Behavior of marine animals, vol. 5: shorebirds: breeding behavior and populations. (Burger, J. and B. Olla, Eds.) Plenum Press, New York.

Gochfeld, M., J. Saliva, F. Lesser, T. Shukla, D. Bertrand, and J. Burger. 1991. Effects of color on cadmium and lead levels in avian contour feathers. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 20:523-526.

Godfrey, W. E. 1979. The birds of Canada. Natl. Mus. Canada, Ottawa.

Gore, J. A. 1987. Black Skimmers on roofs in northwestern Florida. Fla. Field Nat. 15:77-79.

Gore, J. A. 1991. Distribution and abundance of nesting Least Terns and Black Skimmers in northwest Florida. Fla. Field Nat. 19:65-72.

Grant, G. S. 1978. Foot-wetting and belly-soaking by incubating Gull-billed Terns and Black Skimmers. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75:148-152.

Grant, G. S. and N. Hogg. 1976. Behavior of late-nesting Black Skimmers at Salton Sea, California. West. Birds 7:73-80.

Grant, G. S., C. V. Paganelli, and H. Rahn. 1984. Microclimate of Gull-billed Tern and Black Skimmer nests. Condor 86:337-338.

Greene, L. L. and H. W. Kale II. 1976. Roof-nesting by Black Skimmers. Fla. Field Nat. 4:15-17.

Griscom, L. 1923. Birds of the New York City region. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Handbook no. 9, New York.

Griscom, L. 1935. Critical notes on Central American birds in the British Museum. Ibis 5:541-555.

Griscom, L. 1937. Black Skimmers in New England. Auk 54:206-207.

Groom, M. J. 1992. Behavior of three nesting bird species. Ecology 73:785-793.

Groves, F. H. 1977. Chick retrieval by Black Skimmer. Fla. Field Nat. 5:48-49.

Halkin, S. L. 1983. Resting birds tuck bills toward outside of group. Auk 100:997-998.

Haverschmidt, F. 1968. Birds of Surinam. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.

Haynes, A. H. 1987. Human exploitation of seabirds in Jamaica. Biol. Conserv. 41:99-124.

Hays, H. and G. Donaldson. 1970. Sand-kicking camouflages young Black Skimmers. Wilson Bull. 82:100.

Hill, N. P. 1965. The birds of Cape Cod. William Morrow and Co. New York.

Hilty, S. L., W. L. Brown, and G. Tudor. 1986. A guide to the birds of Colombia. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ.

Howell, A. B. 1911. A comparative study at Cobb's Island, Virginia. Auk 28:449-453.

Howell, A. H. 1928. Birds of Alabama. Alabama Dept. Game & Fish, Montgomery.

Howell, S. N. G. and S. Webb. 1995. A guide to the birds of Mexico and Northern Central America. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.

Jackson, J. A., B. E. Rowe, M. S. Hetrick, and B. J. Schardien. 1982. Site-specific nest defense behavior of Black Skimmers and Least Terns. Condor 84:120.

Kale II, H. W. and D. S. Maehr. 1989. Florida's birds: a handbook and reference. Pineapple Press, Sarasota, FL.

King, K. A. 1989. Food habits and organochlorine contaminants in the diet of Black Skimmers, Galveston Bay, Texas. Colonial Waterbirds 12:109-112.

King, K. A. and E. Cromartie. 1986. Mercury, cadmium, lead, and selenium in three waterbird species nesting in Galveston Bay, Texas, U.S.A. Colonial Waterbirds 9:90-94.

King, K. A., T. Custer, and J. S. Quinn. 1991. Effects of mercury, selenium, and organochlorine contaminants on reproduction of Forster's Terns and Black Skimmers nesting in a contaminated Texas Bay. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 21:32-40.

Kinsella, J. M. 1972. Helminth parasites of the Black Skimmer, Rynchops nigra, from Lake Okeechobee, Florida. J. Parasitol. 58:780.

Krannitz, P. G. 1989. Nesting biology of Black Skimmers, Large-billed Terns, and Yellow-billed Terns in Amazonian Brazil. J. Field Ornithol. 60:216-223.

Langridge, H. P. and G. S. Hunter. 1986. Inland nesting of Black Skimmers. Fla. Field Nat. 14:73-74.

Leavitt, B. B. 1957. Food of the Black Skimmer (Rynchops nigra). Auk 74:394.

Loftin, R. W. 1982. Diet of Black Skimmers and Royal Terns in northeastern Florida. Fla. Field Nat. 10:19-20.

Mccaskie, G., S. Liston, and W. A. Rapley. 1974. First nesting of Black Skimmer in California. Condor 76:337-338.

Meyer De Schauensee, R., W. H. Phelps, Jr., and G. Tudor. 1978. A guide to the birds of Venezuela. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ.

Moynihan, M. 1959. A revision of the family Laridae (Aves). Am. Mus. Novitates no. 1928:1-42.

Murphy, R. C. 1936. Oceanic birds of South America. Vol. 2. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. New York.

Nice, M. M. 1941. The role of territory in bird life. Am. Midl. Nat. 26:441-487.

Nuttall, T. 1903. A popular handbook of the birds of the United States and Canada. Little, Brown, and Co., Boston, MA.

Oberholser, H. C. 1938. The bird life of Louisiana. Louisiana Dept. Conserv., New Orleans, Bull. 28.

Oberholser, H. C. 1974. The bird life of Texas. Vol. 1. Univ. Texas Press, Austin.

Parkes, K. C., A. Poole, and H. Lapham. 1971. The Ruddy Turnstone as an egg predator. Wilson Bull. 83:307-307.

Parnell, J. and R. Soots, Jr. 1980. Atlas of colonial waterbirds of North Carolina. Sea Grant Publ. UNC-SG-80-06. Univ. North Carolina.

Payne, R. B. 1984. Sexual selection, lek and arena behavior, and sexual size dimorphism in birds. Ornithol. Monogr. No. 33, Am. Ornithol. Union, Washington, D.C.

Pearson, T. G. 1936. Birds of America. Garden City Books, New York.

Pettingill, O. S. 1937. Behavior of Black Skimmers at Cardwell Island, Virginia. Auk 54:237-244.

Portnoy, J. 1977. Nesting colonies of seabirds and wading birds-coastal Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. Biol. Serv. FWS/OBS 77/07. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Washington, D.C.

Portnoy, J. W. 1978a. Colonial waterbird status and management on the northern Gulf of Mexico coast. Proc. Colonial Waterbird Group 1:38-43.

Portnoy, J. W. 1978b. Black Skimmer abundance on the Louisiana-Mississippi-Alabama Coast. Wilson Bull. 90:438-441.

Portnoy, J. W., R. M. Erwin, and T. W. Custer. 1981. Atlas of gull and tern colonies: North Carolina to Key West Florida. FWS/OBS-80/05. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Washington, D.C.

Post, W. and S. A. Gauthreaux, Jr. 1989. Status and distribution of South Carolina birds. Charleston Mus. Contrib. XVIII, Charleston.

Preston, F. W. 1962. A nesting of Amazonian terns and skimmers. Wilson Bull. 74:286-287.

Purdie, H. A. 1882. Rhynchops nigra an early record for the Massachusetts Coast. Bull. Nuttall Ornithol. Club 7:125.

Quinn, J. S. 1989. Black Skimmer parental defence against chick predation by gulls. Anim. Behav. 38:534-541.

Quinn, J. S. 1990. Sexual size dimorphism and parental care patterns in a monomorphic and a dimorphic larid. Auk 107:260-274.

Ridgely, R. R. and J. A. Gwynne. 1989. A guide to the birds of Panama. 2nd ed. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ.

Ridgway, R. 1919. The birds of North and Middle America, pt. 8. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 50.

Roberson, D. 1985. Monterey birds. Monterey Peninsula Audubon Society, Carmel, CA.

Robert, M., R. McNeil, and A. Leduc. 1989. Conditions and significance of night feeding in shorebirds and other water birds in a tropical lagoon. Auk 106:94-101.

Roberts, M. G. 1976. Belly-soaking and chick transport in the African Skimmer. Ostrich 47:126.

Robertson, Jr., W. B. and G. E. Woolfenden. 1992. Florida bird species: an annotated list. Fla. Ornithol. Soc. Gainesville.

Robinson, S. R. 1981. Head-scratching and yawning in Black Skimmers. J. Field Ornithol. 52:59-60.

Root, T. 1988. Atlas of wintering North American birds: an analysis of Christmas Bird Count data. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

Safina, C. and J. Burger. 1983. Effects of human disturbance on reproductive success in the Black Skimmer. Condor 85:164-171.

Salcedo, H. and R. W. Blake. 1988. The influence of ground effect during flapping flight. Am. Zool. 28:179.

Schew, W. A. and C. T. Collins. 1990. Age and sex determination in Black Skimmer chicks. J. Field Ornithol. 61:174-179.

Schnell, G. D. 1970. A phenetic study of the suborder Lari (Aves) I. Methods and results of principal component analysis. Syst. Zool. 19:35-57.

Schreiber, R. W. and E. A. Schreiber. 1978. Colonial bird use and plant succession on dredged material islands in Florida. vol. 1. Sea and wading bird colonies. Tech. Rept. D-78-14. U.S. Army Eng. Waterways Exper. Station, Vicksburg, MS.

Sears, H. F., L. Moseley, and H. Mueller. 1976. Behavioral evidence on skimmer's evolutionary relationships. Auk 93:170-174.

Sibley, C. G. and J. E. Ahlquist. 1990. Phylogeny and classification of birds. Yale Univ Press, New Haven, CT.

Sibley, C. G. and B. L. Monroe, Jr. 1990. Distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT.

Stewart, R. E. and C. S. Robbins. 1958. Birds of Maryland and the District of Columbia. N. Am. Fauna 62:1-401.

Stiles, F. G. and A. F. Skutch. 1989. A guide to the birds of Costa Rica. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ.

Stone, W. 1921. Fish-catching by the Black Skimmer. Auk 38:595-596.

Stone, W. 1937. Bird studies at Old Cape May. Vol. 2. Delaware Valley Ornithol. Club, Philadelphia, PA.

Texas Colonial Waterbird Society. 1982. An atlas and census of Texas Waterbird Colonies 1973-1980. Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute, Kingsville, TX.

Tinbergen, N. 1960. The Herring Gull's world. Collins New Naturalist, London.

Tomkins, I. R. 1933. Ways of the Black Skimmer. Wilson Bull. 45:147-151.

Tomkins, I. R. 1941. Foot-washing by the Black Skimmer. Auk 58:96.

Tomkins, I. R. 1951. Method of feeding in the Black Skimmer, Rynchops nigra. Auk 68:236-239.

Urban, E. K. J., C. H. Fry, and S. Keith. 1986. The birds of Africa. Vol. 2. Academic Press, London.

Valiela, I. 1984. Marine ecological processes. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Van Rossem, A. J. 1945. A distributional survey of the birds of Sonora, Mexico. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. Louisiana State Univ., no. 21.

Van Rossem, A. J. and M. Hackisuka. 1937. A further report on birds from Sonora, Mexico, with descriptions of two new races. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 8:321-336.

Veit, R. R. and W. R. Petersen. 1993. Birds of Massachusetts. Mass. Audubon Soc. Lincoln.

Voous, K. H. 1983. Birds of the Netherlands Antilles. De Walburg Pers, Curacao.

Wetmore, A. 1919. Note on the eye of the Black Skimmer. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32:195-202.

Wetmore, A. 1944. The subspecific characters and distribution of the New World skimmers (Rynchops nigra). Caldasia 3:111-118.

Wetmore, A. 1965. Birds of Panama. Vol. 1. Smithson. Inst. Washington, D.C.

White, D. H., C. A. Mitchell, and C. J. Stafford. 1985. Organochlorine concentrations, whole body weights, and lipid content of Black Skimmer wintering in Mexico and south Texas, 1983. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 34:513-517.

White, D. H., C. A. Mitchell, and D. M. Swineford. 1984. Reproductive success of Black Skimmers in Texas relative to environmental pollutants. J. Field Ornithol. 55:18-30.

Wilbur, S. R. 1986. Birds of Baja California. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley.

Williams III, S. O. 1982. Black Skimmers on the Mexican Plateau. Am. Birds 36:255-257.

Williams, W., W. Akers, R. Beck, and J. Via. 1993. The 1992 colonial and beach-nesting waterbird survey of the Virginia barrier islands. Raven 64:24-29.

Withers, P. C. and P. L. Timko. 1977. The significance of ground effect to the aerodynamic cost of flight and energetics of the Black Skimmers (Rynchops nigra). J. Exper. Biol. 70:13-26.

Wolk, R. G. 1959. Some reproductive behavior patterns of the Black Skimmer, Rynchops nigra nigra L. Phd Thesis. Cornell Univ. Ithaca, NY.

Zeranski, J. D. and T. R. Baptist. 1990. Connecticut birds. Univ. Press New England, Hanover, NH.

Zusi, R. L. 1958. Laughing Gull takes fish from Black Skimmer. Condor 60:67-68.

Zusi, R. L. 1959. Fishing rates in the Black Skimmer. Condor 61:298.

Zusi, R. L. 1962. Structural adaptations of the head and neck in the Black Skimmer. Proc. Nuttall Ornithol. Club, no. 3.

Zusi, R. L. and D. Bridge. 1981. On the slit pupil of the Black Skimmer (Rynchops niger). J. Field Ornithol. 51:338-340.