Appearance

Not studied quantitatively (Fig. 2) or in great detail; following descriptions are from Bent (1929), Palmer (1967), Hayman et al. (1986), SMH and others as noted below; timing also based on Drake et al. (2001). See also Systematics.

Hatchlings

From Baicich and Harrison (1997). Precocial and downy. Down white below; white collar around hind-neck. Back and upperparts of head speckled buff and grayish, spotted with blackish-brown. Forehead buff-white; speckling on crown may form dark chevron at center. Dark spots on wings and thighs. Upperparts cryptically colored, excellent camouflage against pale sand/gravel backgrounds.

Juvenal Plumage

Acquired gradually over age period 15-30 d (see Breeding: fledgling stage, above). First appears on scapulars and sides of the breast, then on remaining underparts, back, and crown (Fig. 5). Throat, belly, and rump are last to become feathered before remiges and rectrices appear. Feathers of crown and mantle are smoke gray, broadly tipped with pinkish buff. Pinkish tips wear away, leaving a dull gray crown and mantle, faintly mottled with pale tints of buffy and dusky. No black bands on forehead and neck. Dark-tipped tail (dorsal), with white uppertail coverts.

Formative Plumage

(after Howell et al. 2003). Acquired by limited body molt in early fall. Similar to adult (Definitive) Basic plumage except for what is left of worn wing coverts and scapulars from Juvenal plumage; paler underwing. This plumage needs fuller description.

Alternate I Plumage

Partial Pre-alternate molt in early spring (Feb-Apr) produces a plumage quite similar to Alternate of adult (see below). Forecrown stripe and neckband thought to be paler than in Definitive Alternate (Palmer 1967), but needs study.

Definitive Basic Plumage

(Fig. 2). Complete Prebasic molt in late summer and fall (Jul-Nov). Crown and mantle pale, drab gray. Black forehead band lacking, and black neck band replaced by a partial brownish gray patch on both sides of upper breast. Extent and darkness of neck band said to increase with age (Bent 1929), but little evidence supports the claim (SMH).

Definitive Alternate Plumage

Definitive Prealternate molt in Feb/Apr. Molt partial (Bent 1929), wing retains Basic feathering (Palmer 1967); few molt details, however, needs further study.

MALE. From Hayman et al. (1986). Forehead white, with single black band across forehead between eyes; white eyeline extends approximately 1 cm back from eye. Lores, earcoverts, crown and nape pale sandy gray. Underparts and hindneck collar white, except for narrow black or brownish-black breast-band which continues around base of hindneck; often broken in center of breast, but varies among individuals. Mantle to rump - also scapulars, tertials, and wing-coverts - pale sandy-gray; greater coverts tipped with white. Flight feathers darker, crossed with white wingbar; bases of all primaries and secondaries white. Uppertail-coverts broadly white at tip and base of tail white, forming squarish white patch. Outer two rectrices white, others sandy-gray, darker toward tip, forming broad dark tail-band.

FEMALE. Quite similar to male, but slightly paler, drabber, with somewhat reduced dark areas. Male/female differences need further definition.

Legs: chrome-orange in adults, slightly duller in subadults. Iris: burnt-umber brown. Orbital ring: narrow, yellow ocher. Bill: breeding males, chrome-orange with black tip; breeding females, duller orange and more black on tip; winter, black; juveniles, black until first breeding season.

Linear

There was much overlap in all linear measurements of birds from different regions, in addition to overlap between sexes (Appendix 2). Because measurements were taken by several individuals, statistical comparison among sites is inappropriate. However, in comparisons of museum skins (measured by SMH) Prairie birds had slightly longer tails than Atlantic birds (p = 0.01); overall, males may be slightly larger than females (p = 0.05; based on sum of wing and tail).

Mass

Adult weights range from 43.0-63.0 g (Table 2) and do not appear to differ by site. Male and female weights overlap in each population examined, however comparisons are confounded by the possibility of weighing an egg-bearing female. Weight of Great Lakes birds trapped during incubation weeks 2-3 was not significantly different between males and females (J. Stucker unpubl. data).